 The specific heat (C) is defined as the energy

required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of

a substance by one degree. The unit of C is
J/kg.oC or J/kg.K
 Two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at
constant volume, Cv and specific heat at constant
pressure, Cp.
 Cv : energy required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant. Similarly for Cp.
 Cv : energy required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant.
 Cv and Cp (values
given are for
helium gas).
 Consider a fixed mass in a stationary closed
system undergoing a process @ V constant
(no expansion or compression work).
 The conservation of energy principle:
ein – eout = esystem (per unit mass)
ein – eout = du (differential)
 From the definition of Cv, left hand side must
be equal to Cv dT, so:
Cv dT = du (at constant V)
or
 Now, consider a constant-pressure expansion
or compression process:
 The conservation of energy principle:
ein – eout = esystem (per unit mass)
ein – eout = dh (differential, Ex. 4-5)
 From the definition of Cp, left hand side must
be equal to Cp dT, so:
Cv dT = dh (at constant P)
or
 Remind for an ideal gas: Pv = RT
 For ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of
the temperature only:
u = u(T)
 Using enthalpy definition and EOS of ideal gas:

 Since R constant and u = u(T), then enthalpy of

ideal gas is also a function of temperature only:
h = h(T)
Since u and h depend
only on temperature
for an ideal gas, then
the specific heats Cv u = u(T)
and Cp also depend, at
most, on temperature h = h(T)
only. Therefore, at a
given temperature, u,
h, Cv, and Cp of an
Cv = Cv(T)
ideal gas have fixed
values regardless of Cp = Cp(T)
the specific volume or
pressure.
 The differential changes in the internal
energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas can be
expressed as:
du = Cv(T) dT and dh = Cp(T) dT
 The change in internal energy and enthalpy:
 Practically:

 The average specific heats

Cp,avg and Cv,avg are evaluated
at the average temperature
(T1 + T2)/2
 At low P, all real
gases approach
ideal-gas, and their
specific heats
depend on T only.
 We need to have
relations for Cv and
Cp as functions of
temperature.
 The u and h relations given previously are
not restricted to any kind of process. They
are valid for all processes.
 The presence of the Cv in an equation should
not lead one to believe that this equation is
valid for a constant-volume process only.
 The relation u = Cv,avg T is valid for any ideal
gas undergoing any process.
 Similar argument can be given for Cp and h.
 From h = u + RT we have
dh = du + R dT
 From du = Cv(T) dT and dh = Cp(T) dT
we have Cp(T) dT = Cv(T) dT + R dT
 Divide by dT we have:
Cp = Cv + R
 Another ideal-gas property called the specific
heat ratio k, defined as:
k varies with T. For monatomic gases,
k = 1.667. For diatomic gases (ex:
air), k = 1.4 at room T.
3 ways to determine the
internal energy and
enthalpy changes of ideal
gases:
1. Using the tabulated u
and h data
2. using the Cv or Cp
relations as a function
of T and integrate
them.
3. using average specific
heats
 Air
at 300 K and 200 kPa is heated at
constant pressure to 600 K. Determine the
change in internal energy of air per unit
mass, using (a) data from the air table (Table
A–17), (b) the average specific heat value
(Table A–2b).
(a) Using Table A-17:
u1 = u@300 K = 214.07 kJ/kg
u2 = u@600 K = 434.78 kJ/kg
u = u2 – u1 = 434.78 – 214.07 kJ/kg
u = 220.71 kJ/kg
(b) Average temperature = (T1 + T2)/2 = 450 K
Cv,avg@450 K = 0.733 kJ/kg.K
u = Cv,avg@450 K (T2 – T1)
u = (0.733 kJ/kg.K)[(600 – 300) K]
u = 220 kJ/kg
 Aninsulated rigid tank initially contains 1.5
lbm of helium at 80°F and 50 psia. A paddle
wheel with a power rating of 0.02 hp is
operated within the tank for 30 min.
Determine (a) the final temperature and (b)
the final pressure of the helium gas.
(a) The amount of paddle-wheel work:

Energy balanca equation:

(b) The final pressure is determined from the
ideal-gas relation:

where V1 = V2 so that:
A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.5
m3 of nitrogen gas at 400 kPa and 27°C. An
electric heater within the device is turned on
and is allowed to pass a current of 2 A for 5
min from a 120-V source. Nitrogen expands
at constant pressure, and a heat loss of 2800
J occurs during the process. Determine the
final temperature of nitrogen.
 In this case we will have boundary work, Wb.
Also, heat is lost (Qout) from the system and
electrical work is done on the system (Wein)
 Electrical work done on the nitrogen:

 The mass of nitrogen is determined from

 Energybalance (for a closed system
undergoing a process at constant pressure,
U  Wb + H):

 From Table A–2a, Cp = 1.039 kJ/kg·K for N2, so

A piston–cylinder device initially contains air
at 150 kPa and 27°C. At this state, the piston
is resting on a pair of stops, as shown in Fig.
4–32, and the enclosed volume is 400 L. The
mass of the piston is such that a 350-kPa
pressure is required to move it. The air is
now heated until its volume has doubled.
Determine (a) the final temperature, (b) the
work done by the air, and (c) the total heat
transferred to the air.
(a) The final temperature can be determined
easily by using the ideal-gas relation between
states 1 and 3 in the following form:

(b) The work done could is the area under the

process curve on a P-V diagram,
(c) First, take energy balance:
A substance whose specific volume (or density)
is constant is called an incompressible.
 C p = Cv = C
 Internal Energy Changes:
 Enthalpy Changes:

 For solid v P = 0, and

 For liquids:
1. Proses @ P constant
2. Proses @ T constant
 Fora process between states 1 and 2, the
last relation can be expressed:

 Bytaking state 2 to be the compressed liquid

state at a given T and P and state 1 to be the
saturated liquid state at the same T, the
enthalpy of the compressed liquid can be
expressed as
 Determine the enthalpy of liquid water at
100°C and 15 MPa (a) by using compressed
liquid tables, (b) by approximating it as a
saturated liquid, and (c) by using the
correction given by Eq. 4–38.
(a) From compressed liquid tables (Table A–7):

(b) Approximating the compressed liquid as a

saturated liquid at 100°C (error = 2.6%):

(c) Using Equation 4-38 (error 1%):

A 50-kg iron block at 80°C is dropped into an
insulated tank that contains 0.5 m3 of liquid
water at 25°C. Determine the temperature
when thermal equilibrium is reached.
 Thevolume of a rigid tank is constant, and
thus there is no boundary work. The energy
balance on the system can be expressed as
 Thespecific volume of liquid water at or about
room temperature is 0.001 m3/kg. Then:

 Thespecific heats of iron and liquid water (Table

A–3) are Ciron = 0.45 kJ/kg·°C and Cwater = 4.18
kJ/kg·°C. Substituting into energy equation:
0=
 If you ever slapped someone or got slapped
yourself, you probably remember the burning
sensation. Imagine you had the unfortunate
occasion of being slapped by an angry
person, which caused the temperature of the
affected area of your face to rise by 1.8°C
(ouch!). Assuming the slapping hand has a
mass of 1.2 kg and about 0.150 kg of the
tissue on the face and the hand is affected
by the incident, estimate the velocity of the
hand just before impact. Take the specific
heat of the tissue to be 3.8 kJ/kg·°C.
 This is a closed system since it involves a fixed
amount of mass (no mass transfer). We observe that
the kinetic energy of the hand decreases during the
process, as evidenced by a decrease in velocity from
initial value to zero, while the internal energy of the
affected area increases, as evidenced by an increase
in the temperature. There seems to be no significant
energy transfer between the system and its
surroundings during this process. Energy balance:
 NOTE: Reconstruction of events such as
this by making appropriate assumptions are
commonly used in forensic engineering.