Sensors and

transducers
MECHATRONICS – UNIT 1, CHAPTER 2
Chapter learning objectives

At the end of the chapter student should be able to…

 Define sensors and transducers.
 Differentiate between sensors and transducers.
 Identify sensors for various mechatronics applications.
 Classify sensors in various categories.
 Explain the working principles of Hall sensors, light sensors and
proximity sensors.
 Introduction to Sensor:

In all mechatronics system, Instrumentation plays a significant role and there is

a need to measure some physical quantities such as position, force, distance ,
stress, strain etc. Sensors and transducer are key elements used for performing
measurements.
Definition
 A sensor is an element in a measurement system that
acquires a physical paramters and change in to signal. The
phyiscal paramters such as position, force, distance etc., Ex.
Thermocouple.
 Transducer is a device that converts the physical quantity
into equivalent electrical signal in the form of voltage or
current.
Ex., An acceleromter provides o/p voltage proportional to
mechanical motion.
Measurand
The variable that is measured is termed the measurand

Energy Type measurands

Mechanical Length, area, volume, force, pressure,
acceleration, torque, mass flow, elasticity,
pressure, proximity.

Thermal Temperature, heat flow, enthalpy,

entropy, thermal conduction.

Electrical Charge, current, voltage, resistance

Magnetic Field density, flux density.

Chemical Concentration, composition., humidity,
moisture.
Role of sensors

In a mechatronic system, sensors are used to measure the system

response, and it enables the controller to take corrective actions if the
system does not operate properly. Sensors may be used in a control
system in several ways.
1. Verifying when a machine part has reached a certain position.
2. Measuring the revolution of a shaft to determine rotational speed.
3. To measure output signals for system monitoring, diagnosis,
evaluation, parameter adjustment, and supervisory control.
4. Counting the number of parts that are transferred on a conveyor
belt.
5. Determining the size of a product passing an inspection point.
Difference between sensors and
transducers
SENSOR TRANSDUCER
 It detects and measures a  It receives energy in one form and
physical quantity. transfers it to a convenient form.
 Linearity of response is an  Linearity is not a related property.
important factor.
 Output is in readable form.  Output is not in a readable form, and
needs to be processed
 All sensors do not produce the  The equivalence is always in the form
output in electrical form. of electrical signals.
 Diaphragm is a pressure sensor.  Thermocouple is a temperature
Converts pressure to displacement. transducer. Produces an electrical
Both are mechanical energy. output with a change of
temperature
Mechatronics Design Process

It essentially consists of three aspects

a)Modeling and simulation

b) Prototyping

c)Deployment
a)Modeling and simulation:
here physical systems are represented by
suitable models for describing the behaviour
characteristics such as block diagram. How
ever model can be analyzed with computer
simulations for obtaining useful information
that will guide the design process.
Like., recognition of need, conceptual design,
sensors and actuators
b) Prototyping:

It is the process of replacing non-computer

sub systems with actual hardware.

Sensors and actuators are interfaced with

input and output signals and concerned
with models.
c)Deployment:

this is associated with the final product,

embedded software deployment and life
cycle
Characteristics parameters used In transducer:
a)Range: It is the difference between min. & Max.
values of a quantity, for which an instrument is
designed to measure the parameters.
Ex. Load cell may have the range varying from
10KN to 100KN.
b) Span: It is the difference between min. & Max.
values of a quantity to be measured.
Ex. Above example (100-10=90)
Characteristics parameters used In transducer:
c)Error: Error = Measured value-True value
d) Accuracy: It may be defined as the ability of an
instrument to respond to a true value of a measured
variable under the reference conditions.

e) Precision: It is defined as the degree of exactness for

which an instrument is designed or intended to
perform. Also, refers to the consistency of
measurement when the measurement are carried out
Characteristics parameters used In transducer:
f) Tolerance: it is the maximum allowable error in the
measurement.
g) Drift: the variation of change in output for a given
input over a period of time.
h) Zero drift: the variation of change in output when
there is zero input
Classification of sensors
 According to type of power supply
 Active sensors – Directly provide electrical signals.
 Passive sensors – electrical properties of the material vary.
 According to type of output signals
 Analog sensors – It produces a continuous output.
 Digital sensors – They provide outputs in two states – ON or OFF.
 According to method of transduction
 Potentiometric
 Capacitance
 Inductance
 Piezoelectric
Position sensors:
position sensors are used to determine of
some objects with reference to some
reference point.
Various positions sensors are
photoelectric sensors
Hall effect sensors
optical encoder
Hall effect sensor
Hall effect sensors:
when a beam of charged particles passes
through a magnetic field, the beam is
deflected from its straight line path due to
the forces acting on the particles. A current
flowing in a conductor, such as a beam, Is
deflected by a magnetic field. This effect is
called Hall effect.
Hall effect sensors:
the working principle of a hall effect sensors is that if a
strip of conducting material carries a current in the
presence of a transverse magnetic field as shown in fig.
the difference of potential is produced between the
opposite edges of the conductor. The magnitude of the
voltage depends upon the current and the magnetic
field. When a transverse MF passes through the strip,
the voltage difference occurs in the output leads.
Applications of hall effect sensor:
1. it is used as a magnetic switch for electric transducer
2. it is used for measurement of the position,
displacement and proximity.
3. it is used for measurement of current
4. it is used for measurement of power
Fuel level detector
Light sensors/Photoelectric sensors

 Sensors which measure the distance or presence of an object from

a reference point using light as the transduction medium are called
light/photoelectric sensors.
 The three main types of light sensors are ‘through beam type’ ,
‘reflex type’ and ‘reflective type’.
 In through beam type, emitter and detector are mounted in
separate housings which must be aligned carefully so as to face
each other exactly.
 In reflective type, emitter sends a focused light, object reflects the
light and the reflected light is captured on the detector.
Through beam type (Transmissive-type)

Reflective type
Detector
 The light sensor used for detection of the objects is called detector
or receiver.
 The two most common types of light sensitive components used for
detection are photodiode and phototransistor.
 Photodiode is a two terminal junction device that operates when
reverse biased. A lens is placed on the main body to allow light to
pass to the PN junction.
 Phototransistor is a two terminal device made of silicon. The lens is
built to allow light to strike the collector base junction.
Application of Photo electric sensor

Safety Light curtain

Optical encoder
 Encoders are non-contact, optical-based digital devices that are used
for measuring displacement.
 Rotary-type encoders, are widely used in motion-control applications.
 An incremental encoder measures changes in rotation from some
datum position, while an absolute encoder measures the actual angular
position.
 An encoder performance is specified by resolution. If the encoder is 12
bit, the resolution is
 It consists of a collimated light source, rotating disk with specific
patterns and photo detectors.
 The output of the encoder is in the form of square wave pulses. Change
in angular position can be measured by counting the number of state
changes of output.
Incremental Encoder
Output of an incremental encoder
Absolute Encoder
 It is a device used to obtain the absolute angular position of a rotary motor.
 It consists of multiple light source, multiple light detectors, and concentric
circles of slots known as tracks (n).
 Each track is divided radially into 2n sectors consisting of transparent and
opaque sections.
 The resolution of an optical encoder depends on the number of tracks and is
given by resolution = 360o /2n
 Tracks are smaller at the outer edge and become large towards the center.
 A code is derived from light detectors located at each track. Parallel output
from these detectors produces highs and lows to form a n bit whole word
output.
 The absolute angle of the shaft can be found by multiplying the binary output
of the encoder times the resolution.
4 bit Binary code encoding disc
4 bit Gray code encoding disc
Binary and gray codes
Micro switch
 Micro switch is a physical sensor that is used to detect the presence
or absence of an object, the passage of a moving part and when
an object has reached its end of travel.
 They were first used to determine the limit of travel of an object, they
became known as limit switches.
 The micro switch consists of a body, contact block, arm and
actuator.
 When an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm, the switch
changes the state.

Micro switches actuated by (a) lever, (b) roller, and (c) cam.
Reed switch
 It is a magnetically controlled switch consisting of two tongues in a
sealed housing filled with inert gas.
 It is available in normally open and normally closed configurations.
 Operates by magnetic field generated by permanent magnet.
 Application –Burglar alarms
Pneumatic Proximity Switch
Pneumatic Proximity switch

 In this type of sensor, proximity of an object is transformed into a

change in air pressure.
 Low pressure air is allowed to escape through the port in front of the
sensor.
 In the absence of nearby object air is displaced easily and the
pressure is reduced at the vicinity of the sensor output port.
 In the presence of a close by object, air cannot readily escape and
the pressure increases near the sensor outlet port.
 The output pressure thus depends on the proximity of an object.
Inductive proximity switch with
electromagnetic field
Inductive Proximity Switch
 Inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound a round a ferrous
metallic core, oscillator circuit and detector-output circuit.
 It utilizes the eddy current generated when metallic object is placed in
the proximity of an electromagnetic coil.
 The field is centered around the axis of the core which shapes the field
and directs it at the sensor face.
 When a metal object enters circular eddy currents are generated at right
angles which is absorbed by the surface of the metal.
 The intensity of the electromagnetic field decreases when the metal
object enters the target area.
 The detector circuit will detect the change in the oscillator amplitude and
switches on at specific operating amplitude.
 It can sense only metallic objects.
Capacitive proximity sensor with
electrostatic field.
Capacitive Proximity switch
 The sensor of the capacitive proximity switch is just one of the plates of the
capacitor, the other plate being the metal object for which the proximity is
to be detected.
 The sensor is activated when the object enters the electrostatic field of the
capacitor.
 It measures the distance between the front face of the sensor and a target
object.
 The excitation circuit for the sensor works to maintain a constant electric
field magnitude between the sensor head and the target object.
 Capacitive presence sensors provide only two state ON/OFF output, and
sense the change in the oscillator circuit signal amplitude.
 Applications of Proximity switch

a. Counting cartons b. Detecting presence of metal cap c. monitoring operation of conveyor