Sensors and Transducers

The word Transducer is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a
wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy,
thermal or magnetic energy etc, and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.
There are many different types of Sensors and Transducers, both analogue and digital and input
and output available to choose from. The type of input or output transducer being used, really
depends upon the type of signal or process being Sensed or Controlled but we can define a
sensor and transducers as devices that converts one physical quantity into another.
Devices which perform an Input function are commonly called Sensors because they sense a
physical change in some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation, for example
heat or force and covert that into an electrical signal. Devices which perform an Output function
are generally called Actuators and are used to control some external device, for example
movement or sound.
Electrical Transducers are used to convert energy of one kind into energy of another kind, so for
example, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the
amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical
signals back into sound waves and an example of this type of simple Input/Output (I/O) system is
given below.
There are many different types of
sensors and transducers available
in the marketplace, and the choice
of which one to use really
depends upon the quantity being
measured or controlled

Common Sensors and Transducers

Quantity being
Measured

Input Device
(Sensor)

Output Device
(Actuator)

Light Level

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Photodiode
Photo-transistor
Solar Cell

Lights & Lamps

LEDs & Displays
Fibre Optics

Temperature

Thermocouple
Thermistor
Thermostat
Resistive Temperature Detectors

Heater
Fan

Force/Pressure

Strain Gauge
Pressure Switch
Load Cells

Lifts & Jacks

Electromagnet
Vibration

Position

Potentiometer

Motor

Encoders
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
LVDT

Solenoid
Panel Meters

Speed

Tacho-generator
Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler
Doppler Effect Sensors

AC and DC Motors
Stepper Motor
Brake

Sound

Carbon Microphone
Piezo-electric Crystal

Bell
Buzzer
Loudspeaker

Input type transducers or sensors, produce a voltage or signal output response which is
proportional to the change in the quantity that they are measuring (the stimulus). The type or
amount of the output signal depends upon the type of sensor being used. But generally, all types
of sensors can be classed as two kinds, either Passive Sensors or Active Sensors.
Generally, active sensors require an external power supply to operate, called an excitation
signalwhich is used by the sensor to produce the output signal. Active sensors are self-generating
devices because their own properties change in response to an external effect producing for
example, an output voltage of 1 to 10v DC or an output current such as 4 to 20mA DC.
A good example of an active sensor is a strain gauge which is basically a pressure-sensitive
resistive bridge network. It does not generate an electrical signal itself, but by passing a current
through it (excitation signal), its electrical resistance can be measured by detecting variations in
the current and/or voltage across it relating these changes to the amount of strain or force being
applied.
Unlike an active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to an external stimulus. For example, a thermocouple or
photo-diode. Passive sensors are direct sensors which change their physical properties, such as
resistance, capacitance or inductance etc. As well as analogue sensors, Digital Sensors produce
a discrete output representing a binary number or digit such as a logic level 0 or a logic level 1.

Analogue and Digital Sensors

Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional
to the quantity being measured.
Physical
quantities
such
as
Temperature,
Speed,
Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc are all
analogue quantities as they tend to
be continuous in nature. For
example, the temperature of a liquid
can
be
measured
using
a
thermometer or thermocouple which
continuously
responds
to
temperature changes as the liquid is
heated up or cooled down.

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and continuously
over time. These signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-volts (uV) to several millivolts (mV), so some form of amplification is required. Then circuits which measure analogue
signals usually have a slow response and/or low accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily
converted into digital type signals for use in micro-controller systems by the use of analogue-todigital converters, or ADCs.

Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are
a digital representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output
signal in the form of a logic 1 or a logic 0, (ON or OFF). This means then that a digital signal
only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single bit, (serial
transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single byte output (parallel transmission).

Light Sensor used to produce a Digital Signal

In our simple example above, the
speed of the rotating shaft is
measured by using a digital
LED/Opto-detector sensor. The
disc which is fixed to a rotating
shaft (for example, from a motor
or robot wheels), has a number of
transparent slots within its design.
As the disc rotates with the speed
of the shaft, each slot passes by
the sensor in turn producing an
output pulse representing a logic
1 or logic 0 level.
These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the speed
or revolutions of the shaft. By increasing the number of slots or windows within the disc more
output pulses can be produced for each revolution of the shaft. The advantage of this is that a
greater resolution and accuracy is achieved as fractions of a revolution can be detected. Then this
type of sensor arrangement could also be used for positional control with one of the discs slots
representing a reference position.
Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high accuracies and can be
both measured and sampled at a very high clock speed. The accuracy of the digital signal is
proportional to the number of bits used to represent the measured quantity. For example, using
a processor of 8 bits, will produce an accuracy of 0.195% (1 part in 512). While using a processor
of 16 bits gives an accuracy of 0.0015%, (1 part in 65,536) or 130 times more accurate. This
accuracy can be maintained as digital quantities are manipulated and processed very rapidly,
millions of times faster than analogue signals.
In most cases, sensors and more specifically analogue sensors generally require an external
power supply and some form of additional amplification or filtering of the signal in order to
produce a suitable electrical signal which is capable of being measured or used. One very good
way of achieving both amplification and filtering within a single circuit is to use Operational
Amplifiers as seen before.

Signal Conditioning of Sensors

Op-amps can be used to provide amplification of signals when connected in either inverting or
non-inverting configurations.
The very small analogue signal voltages produced by a sensor such as a few milli-volts or even
pico-volts can be amplified many times over by a simple op-amp circuit to produce a much larger
voltage signal of say 5v or 5mA that can then be used as an input signal to a microprocessor or
analogue-to-digital based system.
Therefore, to provide any useful signal a sensors output signal has to be amplified with an
amplifier that has a voltage gain up to 10,000 and a current gain up to 1,000,000 with the
amplification of the signal being linear with the output signal being an exact reproduction of the
input, just changed in amplitude.
Then amplification is part of signal conditioning. So when using analogue sensors, generally
some form of amplification (Gain), impedance matching, isolation between the input and output
or perhaps filtering (frequency selection) may be required before the signal can be used and this
is conveniently performed by Operational Amplifiers.
Also, when measuring very small physical changes the output signal of a sensor can become
contaminated with unwanted signals or voltages that prevent the actual signal required from
being measured correctly. These unwanted signals are called Noise. This Noise or Interference
can be either greatly reduced or even eliminated by using signal conditioning or filtering
techniques as we discussed in the Active Filter tutorial.
By using either a Low Pass, or a High Pass or even Band Pass filter the bandwidth of the noise
can be reduced to leave just the output signal required. For example, many types of inputs from
switches, keyboards or manual controls are not capable of changing state rapidly and so lowpass filter can be used. When the interference is at a particular frequency, for example mains
frequency, narrow band reject or Notch filters can be used to produce frequency selective filters.

Typical Op-amp Filters

Were some random noise still
remains after filtering it may be
necessary to take several samples
and then average them to give the
final value so increasing the
signal-to-noise ratio. Either way,
both amplification and filtering
play an important role in interfacing both sensors and transducers to microprocessor and
electronics based systems in real world conditions.

Position Sensors
One method of determining a position, is to use either distance, which could be the distance
between two points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point, or by
rotation (angular movement). For example, the rotation of a robots wheel to determine its
distance travelled along the ground. Either way, Position Sensors can detect the movement of

an object in a straight line using Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using Rotational
Sensors.

The Potentiometer
The most commonly used of all the Position Sensors, is the potentiometer because it is an
inexpensive and easy to use position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft
that can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and which causes
the resistance value between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving an
electrical signal output that has a proportional relationship between the actual wiper position on
the resistive track and its resistance value. In other words, resistance is proportional to position.
Potentiometers come in a wide range of designs and sizes such as the commonly available round
rotational type or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a positional sensor the
moveable object is connected directly to the rotational shaft or slider of the potentiometer.
A DC reference voltage is applied across the two outer fixed connections forming the resistive
element. The output voltage signal is taken from the wiper terminal of the sliding contact as
shown below.
This configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which
is proportional to the shaft position. Then for example, if you apply a voltage of say
10v across the resistive element of the potentiometer the maximum output voltage
would be equal to the supply voltage at 10 volts, with the minimum output voltage
equal to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output signal from 0 to 10 volts, with
5 volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its half-way or centre position.

Potentiometer Construction
The output signal (Vout) from the
potentiometer is taken from the
centre wiper connection as it
moves along the resistive track,
and is proportional to the angular
position of the shaft.

Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit

While resistive potentiometer
position sensors have many
advantages: low cost, low tech,
easy to use etc, as a position
sensor they also have many
disadvantages: wear due to
moving parts, low accuracy, low
repeatability, and limited frequency response.

But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range
of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to the
physical size of the potentiometer being used.
For example a single turn rotational potentiometer generally only has a fixed mechanical rotation
of between 0o and about 240 to 330o maximum. However, multi-turn pots of up to 3600 o (10 x
360o) of mechanical rotation are also available.
Most types of potentiometers use carbon film for their resistive track, but these types are
electrically noisy (the crackle on a radio volume control), and also have a short mechanical life.
Wire-wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound coil
resistive wire can also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems as their
wiper jumps from one wire segment to the next producing a logarithmic (LOG) output resulting in
errors in the output signal. These too suffer from electrical noise.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film
or cermet type potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth low friction
electrically linear (LIN) resistive track giving them a low noise, long life and excellent resolution
and are available as both multi-turn and single turn devices. Typical applications for this type of
high accuracy position sensor is in computer game joysticks, steering wheels, industrial and robot
applications.

Inductive Position Sensors

Linear Variable Differential Transformer
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the Linear
Variable Differential Transformer or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type position sensor
which works on the same principle as the AC transformer that is used to measure movement. It
is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement and whose output is proportional to
the position of its moveable core.
It basically consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the primary coil
and the other two coils forming identical secondaries connected electrically together in series but
180oout of phase either side of the primary coil.
A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an armature) which is connected to
the object being measured, slides or moves up and down inside the tubular body of the LVDT.
A small AC reference voltage called the excitation signal (2 20V rms, 2 20kHz) is applied to
the primary winding which in turn induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent secondary
windings (transformer principles).
If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings, null
position, the two induced emfs in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are
180o out of phase, so the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is displaced slightly to one
side or the other from this null or zero position, the induced voltage in one of the secondaries will
be become greater than that of the other secondary and an output will be produced.
The polarity of the output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the moving
core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central null position the greater will

be the resulting output signal. The result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly with
the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has both an amplitude that is a linear function of
the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates direction of movement.
The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase enabling
suitable electronic circuits such as the AD592 LVDT Sensor Amplifier to know which half of the
coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel.

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer

When the armature is moved from one end to the
other through the centre position the output
voltages changes from maximum to zero and back
to maximum again but in the process changes its
phase angle by 180 degs. This enables the LVDT to
produce an output AC signal whose magnitude
represents the amount of movement from the
centre position and whose phase angle represents
the direction of movement of the core.
A typical application of a linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) sensor would be as a pressure
transducer, were the pressure being measured
pushes against a diaphragm to produce a force.
The force is then converted into a readable voltage
signal by the sensor.
Advantages of the linear variable differential transformer, or LVDT compared to a resistive
potentiometer are that its linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is excellent, very
good accuracy, good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless operation. They are also
sealed for use in hostile environments.

Inductive Proximity Sensors.

Another type of inductive position sensor in common use is the Inductive Proximity Sensor also
called an Eddy current sensor. While they do not actually measure displacement or angular
rotation they are mainly used to detect the presence of an object in front of them or within a
close proximity, hence their name proximity sensor.
Proximity sensors, are non-contact position sensors that use a magnetic field for detection with
the simplest magnetic sensor being the reed switch. In an inductive sensor, a coil is wound
around an iron core within an electromagnetic field to form an inductive loop.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around the
inductive sensor, such as a ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance of the coil
changes significantly. The proximity sensors detection circuit detects this change producing an
output voltage. Therefore, inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
Faradays Law of inductance.

Inductive Proximity Sensors

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components; The oscillator which produces the
electromagnetic field, the coil which generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which

detects any change in the field when an object enters it and the output circuit which produces the
output signal, either with normally closed (NC) or normally open (NO) contacts.
Inductive proximity sensors allow for the detection of
metallic objects in front of the sensor head without any
physical contact of the object itself being detected. This
makes them ideal for use in dirty or wet environments.
The sensing range of proximity sensors is very small,
typically 0.1mm to 12mm.
As well as industrial applications, inductive proximity
sensors are also commonly used to control the flow of
traffic by changing of traffic lights at junctions and cross roads. Rectangular inductive loops of
wire are buried into the tarmac road surface.
When a car or other road vehicle passes over this inductive loop, the
metallic body of the vehicle changes the loops inductance and activates the
sensor thereby alerting the traffic lights controller that there is a vehicle
waiting.
One main disadvantage of these types of position sensors is that they are
Omni-directional, that is they will sense a metallic object either above,
below or to the side of it. Also, they do not detect non-metallic objects
although Capacitive Proximity Sensors and Ultrasonic Proximity Sensorsare available. Other
commonly available magnetic positional sensors include: reed switches, Hall Effect Sensors and
variable reluctance sensors.

Rotary Encoders
Rotary Encoders are another type of position sensor which resemble
potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non-contact optical devices
used for converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an
analogue or digital data code. In other words, they convert mechanical
movement into an electrical signal (preferably digital).
All optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from
an LED or infra-red light source is passed through a rotating highresolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns,
either binary, grey code or BCD. Photo detectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic
circuit processes the information into a digital form as a stream of binary output pulses that are
fed to counters or controllers which determine the actual angular position of the shaft.

Incremental Encoder
Incremental Encoders, also known as quadrature encoders or relative rotary encoder, are the
simplest of the two position sensors. Their output is a series of square wave pulses generated by
a photocell arrangement as the coded disk, with evenly spaced transparent and dark lines called
segments on its surface, moves or rotates past the light source. The encoder produces a stream
of square wave pulses which, when counted, indicates the angular position of the rotating shaft.

Incremental encoders have two separate outputs called quadrature outputs. These two outputs
are displaced at 90o out of phase from each other with the direction of rotation of the shaft being
determined from the output sequence.
The number of transparent and dark segments or slots on the disk determines the resolution of
the device and increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the resolution per degree
of rotation. Typical encoded discs have a resolution of up to 256 pulses or 8-bits per rotation.
The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has one single square wave output
and is often used in unidirectional applications where basic position or speed information only is
required. The Quadrature or Sine wave encoder is the more common and has two output
square waves commonly called channel A and channel B. This device uses two photo detectors,
slightly offset from each other by 90 o thereby producing two separate sine and cosine output
signals.

Simple Incremental Encoder

By using the Arc Tangent mathematical
function the angle of the shaft in
radians can be calculated. Generally,
the optical disk used in rotary position
encoders is circular, then the
resolution of the output will be given
as: = 360/n,
where n equals
the
number of segments on coded disk.
Then for example, the number of
segments required to give an
incremental encoder a resolution of 1o will be: 1o = 360/n, therefore, n = 360 windows, etc. Also
the direction of rotation is determined by noting which channel produces an output first, either
channel A or channel B giving two directions of rotation, A leads B or B leads A. This arrangement
is shown below.

Incremental Encoder Output

One main disadvantage of incremental encoders when used as a position sensor, is that they
require external counters to determine the absolute angle of the shaft within a given rotation. If
the power is momentarily shut off, or if the encoder misses a pulse due to noise or a dirty disc,
the resulting angular information will produce an
error. One way of overcoming this disadvantage is
to use absolute position encoders.

Absolute Position Encoder

Absolute Position Encoders are more complex
than quadrature encoders. They provide a unique
output code for every single position of rotation
indicating both position and direction. Their coded
disk consists of multiple concentric tracks of light

and dark segments. Each track is independent with its own photo detector to simultaneously
read a unique coded position value for each angle of movement. The number of tracks on the
disk corresponds to the binary bit-resolution of the encoder so a 12-bit absolute encoder would
have 12 tracks and the same coded value only appears once per revolution.

4-bit Binary Coded Disc

One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its
non-volatile memory which retains the exact position
of the encoder without the need to return to a
home position if the power fails. Most rotary
encoders are defined as single-turn devices, but
absolute multi-turn devices are available, which
obtain feedback over several revolutions by adding
extra code disks.
Typical application of absolute position encoders are
in computer hard drives and CD/DVD drives were the
absolute position of the drives read/write heads are monitored or in printers/plotters to
accurately position the printing heads over the paper.
In this tutorial about Position Sensors, we have looked at several examples of sensors that can
be used to measure the position or presence of objects. In the next tutorial we will look at
sensors that are used to measure temperature such as thermistors, thermostats and
thermocouples, and as such are known commonly as Temperature Sensors.

Temperature Sensor Types

Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is generated
by an object or system, allowing us to sense or detect any physical change to that temperature
producing either an analogue or digital output.
There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. A Temperature Sensor consists of two
basic physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types These types of temperature sensor are

required to be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to
monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a
wide range of temperatures.

Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types These types of temperature sensor use

convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in
convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the
form of infra-red radiation (the sun).

The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be sub-divided
into

The Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that
basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that
are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two
dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating
an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling
systems.

The Bi-metallic Thermostat

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back
to back. When it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through
the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and
the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the contacts
preventing the current from flowing.
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their
movement when subjected to temperature changes. There are the snap-action types that
produce an instantaneous ON/OFF or OFF/ON type action on the electrical contacts at a set
temperature point, and the slower creep-action types that gradually change their position as
the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly
used in our homes for controlling the
temperature set point of ovens, irons,
immersion hot water tanks and they can also
be found on walls to control the domestic
heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic
coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up as
the temperature changes. Generally, creeper
type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature changes than the standard snap
ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and thinner making them ideal for use in temperature gauges
and dials etc.
Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main disadvantage of
the standard snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they have
a large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open until when they close again. For
example, it may be set to 20oC but may not open until 22oC or close again until 18oC.

So the range of temperature swing can be quite high. Commercially available bi-metallic
thermostats for home use do have temperature adjustment screws that allow for a more precise
desired temperature set-point and hysteresis level to be pre-set.

The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the
wordsTHERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes its
physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or
cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-action
types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
Most types of thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance
or (NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the
temperature, and of course there are some which have a Positive Temperature
Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value goes UP with an increase in
temperature.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using
metal oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The
semiconductor material is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which
are hermetically sealed to give a relatively fast response to any changes in
temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25 oC), their time
constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to the
current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at
room temperature from 10s of M down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those
types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to
produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a
suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives a
voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for example:

Temperature Sensors Example No1

The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at 25 oC and a resistance value of 100 at
100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage (Vout) for
both temperatures when connected in series with a 1k resistor across a 12v power supply.

At 25oC

At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1k) to a potentiometer or preset, a
voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for example, 5v output
at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage level can be obtained over a
wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistors are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistors, which is due
mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone
Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the
divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor
becomes linear with temperature.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature
Detector or RTD. RTDs are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting
metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance
changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also available are thinfilm RTDs. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic
substrate.

Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature

coefficients (PTC) but unlike the thermistor their output is
extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature.
However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces
a very small output change for example, 1/oC.
The more common types of RTDs are made from platinum and are called Platinum Resistance
Thermometer or PRTs with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which
has a standard resistance value of 100 at 0 oC. The downside is that Platinum is expensive and
one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
Like the thermistor, RTDs are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through
the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with
temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100 at 0 oC, increasing to about 140
at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200 to +600 oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor the
resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as
the current flows through it, I2R , (Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings. To avoid this, the
RTD is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge network which has additional connecting wires
for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant current source.

The Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensor types.
Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to
changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the widest
temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200 oC to well over 2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept
at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring
(Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed
across the junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown below.

Thermocouple Construction

The operating principal of a

thermocouple is very simple and
basic. When fused together the
junction of the two dissimilar
metals such as copper and
constantan produces a thermoelectric effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between
them. The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the Seebeck effect as a
temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an emf. Then the
output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two
junctions is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are
connected within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be
detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two junctions, V1 - V2. This
difference in voltage will increase with temperature until the junctions peak voltage level is
reached and this is determined by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme
temperatures
of
o
o
between -200 C to over +2000 C to be measured. With such a large choice of materials and
temperature range, internationally recognised standards have been developed complete with
thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a
particular application. The British colour code for standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple Sensor Colour Codes
Extension and Compensating Leads
Code
Type

Conductors (+/-)

Sensitivity

Nickel Chromium /
Constantan

-200 to 900oC

Iron / Constantan

0 to 750oC

British
BS 1843:1952

Nickel Chromium /
Nickel Aluminium

-200 to 1250oC

Nicrosil / Nisil

0 to 1250oC

Copper / Constantan

-200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel

Compensating for
"S" and "R"

0 to 1450oC

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature
measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Nickel-Chromium(Type
K). The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few millivolts (mV) for a 10 oC
change in temperature difference and because of this small voltage output some form of
amplification is generally required.

Thermocouple Amplification
The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be
carefully selected, because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the
thermocouple at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and instrumentation type of
amplifier preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
Other Temperature
Sensor
Types not
mentioned
here
include, Semiconductor Junction
Sensors, Infra-red and Thermal
Radiation Sensors, Medical type
Thermometers, Indicators and
Colour Changing Inks or Dyes.
In this tutorial about Temperature Sensor Types, we have looked at several examples of sensors
that can be used to measure changes in temperature. In the next tutorial we will look at sensors
that are used to measure light quantity, such as Photodiodes, Phototransistors, Photovoltaic Cells
and the Light Dependant Resistor.

Light Sensors
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the
radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called light, and which
ranges in frequency from Infra-red to Visible up to Ultraviolet light spectrum.
The Light Sensor is a passive devices that convert this light energy whether visible or in the
infra-red parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more commonly
known as Photoelectric Devices or Photo Sensors because the convert light energy (photons)
into electricity (electrons).
Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate electricity
when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and those which change their
electrical properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors. This leads to the
following classification of devices.

Photo-emissive Cells These are photodevices which release free electrons from a
light sensitive material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The
amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of the light and the higher
the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting light energy into electrical
energy.

Photo-conductive Cells These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when

subjected to light. Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material
which controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the current for a given
applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide used
in LDR photocells.

Photo-voltaic Cells These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the

radiant light energy received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls
on to two semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a voltage of
approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material is Selenium used in solar
cells.

Photo-junction Devices These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor

devices such as the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of
electrons and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are specifically
designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral response tuned
to the wavelength of incident light.

The Photoconductive Cell

A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its physical
properties when subjected to light energy. The most common type of photoconductive device is
thePhotoresistor which changes its electrical resistance in response to changes in the light
intensity.
Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that use light energy to control the flow of electrons,
and hence the current flowing through them. The commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called
the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR.

The Light Dependent Resistor

As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of exposed
semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical resistance from
several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by
creating hole-electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in
resistance for an increase in illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long
response time requiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light
intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS),
lead selenide (PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infrared range with the most commonly used of all photoresistive light sensors
being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells
because its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and
can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak
sensitivity wavelength (p) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.

The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in
the yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark
resistance) is very high at about 10Ms which falls to about 100s when fully illuminated (lit
resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a
zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often
used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street lights ON and OFF,
and for photographic exposure meter type applications.
Connecting a light dependant resistor in series with a standard resistor like this across a single
DC supply voltage has one major advantage, a different voltage will appear at their junction for
different levels of light.
The amount of voltage drop across series resistor,R 2 is determined by the resistive value of the
light dependant resistor, RLDR. This ability to generate different voltages produces a very handy
circuit called a Potential Divider or Voltage Divider Network.
As we know, the current through a series circuit is common and as the LDR changes its resistive
value due to the light intensity, the voltage present at VOUT will be determined by the voltage
divider formula. An LDRs resistance, RLDR can vary from about 100s in the sun light, to over
10Ms in absolute darkness with this variation of resistance being converted into a voltage
variation at VOUTas shown.

One simple use of a Light Dependent Resistor, is as a

light sensitive switch as shown below.
This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light
activated switch. A potential divider circuit is formed
between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1.
When no light is present ie in darkness, the resistance
of the LDR is very high in the Megaohms (Ms) range
so zero base bias is applied to the transistor TR1 and
the relay is de-energised or OFF.
As the light level increases the resistance of
the LDRstarts to decrease causing the base bias
voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by the
potential divider network formed with resistor R1, the
base bias voltage is high enough to turn the
transistor TR1 ON and thus activate the relay which in
turn is used to control some external circuitry. As the light
level falls back to darkness again the resistance of
the LDR increases causing the base voltage of the
transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay
OFF at a fixed light level determined again by the
potential divider network.
By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay turns
ON or OFF can be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit shown above has
a fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not be consistent due to variations in either
temperature or the supply voltage. A more sensitive precision light activated circuit can be easily
made by incorporating the LDR into a Wheatstone Bridge arrangement and replacing the
transistor with an Operational Amplifier as shown.

Light Level Sensing Circuit

In this basic dark sensing circuit, the light dependent resistor LDR1 and the
potentiometer VR1 form one adjustable arm of a simple resistance bridge network, also known
commonly as a Wheatstone bridge, while the two fixed resistors R1 and R2 form the other arm.
Both sides of the bridge form potential divider networks across the supply voltage whose
outputs V1 and V2 are connected to the non-inverting and inverting voltage inputs respectively of
the operational amplifier.
The operational amplifier is configured as a Differential Amplifier also known as a voltage
comparator with feedback whose output voltage condition is determined by the difference
between the two input signals or voltages, V1 and V2. The resistor combination R1 and R2 form a
fixed voltage reference at input V2, set by the ratio of the two resistors. The LDR
VR1 combination provides a variable voltage input V1 proportional to the light level being
detected by the photoresistor.
As with the previous circuit the output from the operational amplifier is used to control a relay,
which is protected by a free wheel diode, D1. When the light level sensed by the LDR and its
output voltage falls below the reference voltage set at V2 the output from the op-amp changes
state activating the relay and switching the connected load.

Likewise as the light level

increases the output will switch
back turning OFF the relay. The
hysteresis of the two switching
points is set by the feedback
resistor Rf can be chosen to give
any suitable voltage gain of the
amplifier.
The operation of this type of light
sensor circuit can also be reversed
to switch the relay ON when the
light level exceeds the reference voltage level and vice versa by reversing the positions of the
light sensor LDR and the potentiometer VR1. The potentiometer can be used to pre-set the
switching point of the differential amplifier to any particular light level making it ideal as a simple
light sensor project circuit.

Photojunction Devices
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from silicon
semiconductor PN-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both visible light
and infra-red light levels. Photo-junction devices are specifically made for sensing light and this
class of photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the Phototransistor.

The Photodiode.
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PN-junction
diode except that the diodes outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the
light onto the PN junction for increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to light particularly
longer wavelengths such as red and infra-red rather than visible light.
This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or
glass bead bodies such as the 1N4148 signal diode. LEDs can also
be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light from
their junction. All PN-junctions are light sensitive and can be used in
a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode with the PN-junction of
the photodiode always Reverse Biased so that only the diodes
leakage or dark current can flow.
The current-voltage characteristic (I/V Curves) of a photodiode with
no light on its junction (dark mode) is very similar to a normal signal or rectifying diode. When the
photodiode is forward biased, there is an exponential increase in the current, the same as for a
normal diode. When a reverse bias is applied, a small reverse saturation current appears which
causes an increase of the depletion region, which is the sensitive part of the junction.
Photodiodes can also be connected in a current mode using a fixed bias voltage across the
junction. The current mode is very linear over a wide range.

Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and
1uA for silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are

formed and the leakage current increases. This

leakage current increases as the illumination of the
junction increases.

Thus, the photodiodes current is directly

proportional to light intensity falling onto
the PN-junction. One main advantage of
photodiodes when used as light sensors is
their fast response to changes in the light
levels, but one disadvantage of this type of
photodevice is the relatively small current
flow even when fully lit.
The following circuit shows a photo-currentto-voltage converter circuit using an
operational amplifier as the amplifying
device. The output voltage (Vout) is given
as Vout = Ip Rf and which is proportional to the light intensity characteristics of the photodiode.
This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an operational amplifier with two input
terminals at about zero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. This zero-bias op-amp
configuration gives a high impedance loading to the photodiode resulting in less influence by
dark current and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to the radiant light intensity.
Capacitorf is used to prevent oscillation or gain peaking and to set the output bandwidth
(1/2RC).

Photo-diode Amplifier Circuit

Photodiodes are very versatile
light sensors that can turn its
current flow both ON and OFF
in
nanoseconds
and
are
commonly used in cameras, light
meters, CD and DVD-ROM drives,
TV remote controls, scanners, fax
machines and copiers etc, and
when integrated into operational
amplifier circuits as infrared
spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm
motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser scanning and positioning systems etc.

The Phototransistor

An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is basically

a photodiode with amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its collector-base PNjunction reverse biased exposing it to the radiant light source.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current gain
and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times greater than
that of the standard photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily converted into a
phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the collector and base.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large base region electrically
unconnected, although some phototransistors allow a base connection to control the sensitivity,
and which uses photons of light to generate a base current which in turn causes a collector to
emitter current to flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types whose outer casing is either
transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base junction for increased sensitivity.

Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

In the NPN transistor the collector is
biased positively with respect to the
emitter so that the base/collector
junction is reverse biased. therefore,
with no light on the junction normal
leakage or dark current flows which is
very small. When light falls on the base
more electron/hole pairs are formed in
this region and the current produced by
this action is amplified by the transistor.
Usually
the
sensitivity
of
a
phototransistor is a function of the DC
current gain of the transistor. Therefore,
the overall sensitivity is a function of
collector current and can be controlled
by connecting a resistance between the
base and the emitter but for very high
sensitivity
optocoupler
type
applications, Darlington phototransistors are generally used.
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional
amplification or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light levels or
selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an ordinary NPN phototransistor.
Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled to
the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor configuration gives a
current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual transistors, a
photodarlington device produces a very sensitive detector.
Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto
switches, light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters are
sometimes required when detecting visible light.

Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is

the Photo-thyristor. This is a light activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled
Rectifier, SCR that can be used as a light activated switch in AC applications.
However their sensitivity is usually very low compared to equivalent
photodiodes or phototransistors.
To help increase their sensitivity to light, photo-thyristors are made thinner
around the gate junction. The downside to this process is that it limits the
amount of anode current that they can switch. Then for higher current AC applications they are
used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to switch larger more conventional thyristors.

Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. Solar cells convert light
energy directly into DC electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current to a power a resistive
load such as a light, battery or motor. Then photovoltaic cells are similar in many ways to a
battery because they supply DC power.
However, unlike the other photo devices we have looked at above which use light intensity even
from a torch to operate, photovoltaic solar cells work best using the suns radiant energy.
Solar cells are used in many different types of applications to offer an alternative power source
from conventional batteries, such as in calculators, satellites and now in homes offering a form of
renewable power.
Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the same
as photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the
reverse bias. They have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode
when in the dark.
When illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction and an
individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar cells have
a Positive and a Negative side just like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which increases the
output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available current. Commercially
available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of the output voltage and current
(Volts times Amps) when fully lit.

Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.

The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size of the
cell and its efficiency which is generally very low at around 15 to 20%. To increase the overall
efficiency of the cell commercially available solar cells use polycrystalline silicon or amorphous
silicon, which have no crystalline structure, and can generate currents of between 20 to 40mA per
cm2.

Other materials used in the construction of photovoltaic cells include Gallium Arsenide, Copper
Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These different materials each have a different
spectrum band response, and so can be tuned to produce an output voltage at different
wavelengths of light.