Chapter 6

Basic Input Output System.

What is BIOS
 BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System.
 Found on the Motherboard.
 BIOS is a basic level of software that is stored in a BIOS ROM (Read Only
Memory) Chip.
 Modern day computers have BIOS in VGA, SCSI and Network cards also.
BIOS Basics
 ROM is non-volatile memory that is not lost when the PC is turned off.
BIOS is in BIOS ROM.
 The main function of BIOS is to load the basic drivers from the BIOS chip
to the memory. Then the devices like keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc can
be used by the processor.
 A driver is a collection of functions for the processor to control and
communicate with a device.
 BIOS creates a standard interface for devices by different manufacturers.
Hence, the OS is able to communicate with any of those hardware.
BIOS hardware
 BIOS consists of a ROM Chip in the motherboard.
 Can be of True-ROM, PROM (Programmable ROM), EPROM (Erasable
Programmable ROM) or EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable
ROM).
 True-ROMs are written at manufacturing time.
 PROM is written once after manufacturing.
 EPROM is rewritable by erasing using UV light.
 EEPROM is rewritable by erasing electronically.

NOTE: Flash is newest ROM type. Not used for BIOS. Flash is an EEPROM.
BIOS vs CMOS
 BIOS can be configured as the user preference. The settings must be saved
for next boot time.
 BIOS is ROM, can’t save anything in it.
 CMOS (Complementary Metal oxide Semiconductor) chip saves the
configuration settings on it.
 CMOS is volatile.
 CMOS chips wants 1 millionth of an Amp to function.
 A small battery is used to keep it alive all the time.
BIOS software
 BIOS simply contains the drivers to control and communicate with the
hardware devices.
 If a driver is not there for a device, the device can not be used by the OS.
 The BIOS has three other functions
 POST (Power On Self Test) – A program that tests the basic components of
the system, like processor, motherboard, memory, keyboard, display, ports,
etc. Executes when the PC is powered on. If the test fails, the start-up
process halts.
 BIOS Setup – Enables to configure the system.
 Boot strap loader – Reads the first sector of the primary hard
drive/secondary hard drive until a master boot record (MBR) is located,
then executes the code in it. The MBR then loads the VBR (Volume Boot
Record). VBR executes and loads the OS.
BIOS Settings
BIOS Settings
 BIOS settings can be changed and stored in the CMOS.
 Different motherboards have different configuration options.
 Some generally found ones are,
Date and Time Settings
Primary and Secondary IDE devices.
Drive A and B enable/disable
Video type
Advanced BIOS Features
Advanced Chipset Features
Power Management Setup
The memory that is lost when power is switched off.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
 Is used as the Main Memory in the modern PCs.
 Very dense (small chip can hold a lot of
memory)
 Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store data.
 Capacitors are charged with electricity to
indicate one bit.
 Capacitors are discharged with small time.
 So, frequently the electric charge must be
given to the capacitor to recharge.
 Since such dynamic charging is needed, it’s
called Dynamic RAM.
SRAM (Static RAM)
 Static RAM uses transistors to store data. Six transistors per bit.
 Flip-Flops
 No periodic refreshments needed.
 Faster than DRAM. Access time 2ns or less. Can keep pace with a processor
running 500MHz or faster.
 SRAM is expensive and low dense.
SDRAM
 Synchronous DRAM.
 Runs in synchronization with Memory Bus using a clocked interface. Hence
it’s very fast.
 Signals are synchronized with motherboard clock, so, removed latency. In
fact both work under same clock. No waiting for one to finish and
acknowledge.
 Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.
DDR SDRAM
 Data is transferred twice per clock cycle.
 Not doubling clock rate, twice data transfer per clock cycle.
 Once at the rising edge, once at the falling edge.
 Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR
SDRAM 133 MHZ).
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
 Rambus DRAM is a chip-to-chip memory bus for
devices running in very high rates of speed.
 Ex. Main Memory to Video RAM bus.
 RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to
achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps
SIMM/DIMM
 Two different types of Memory Modules are available.
 The changes are on the pin count, memory row width and memory type.
 SIMM – Single Inline Memory Module
30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm)

 DIMM – Dual Inline Memory Module

With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch
(about 14 x 2.5 cm)
Cache Memory
 The Main Memory is eight times slower than processor speeds today.
 If processor reads data from Main Memory, a latency is caused.
 To minimize it a high speed memory is prepared inside the processor. It’s
called L1 cache.
 The cache stores the frequently used data by the processor. Next time
processor wants them, it can directly get it from cashe.
 If the cache does not have data, it’s read from the Main Memory.
 Cache memory uses SRAM technology. Expensive. low density.
 Has a small memory capacity.
 L1 cache – resides inside processor (also called internal)
 L2 cache – resides on the mother board (called external, in modern
systems it comes inside the processor itself)
 L3 cache – extended cache used for cache intensive applications like
servers.
Permanent of semi-permanent storage devices
Uses Optical or Magnetic principles
Magnetic Tape
 A stream of binary computer data bits is stored by magnetizing tiny pieces
of metal embedded on the surface of a disk or tape in a pattern that
represents data.
 The pattern is later read and converted back into the same stream of bits.
Hard Disks
 Consists of rigid, disk-shaped platters constructed of aluminum or glass.
 Platters are stacked on top of each other, in a way that each can rotate
independently.
 A platter is approx 3 inches in diameter (2 inches in notebook computers).
 Heads read and write data in concentric rings called tracks.
 Tracks are divided into segments called sectors. (each sector with
512bytes).
 Identically aligned tracks on each side of every platter together make up a
cylinder.
 The heads are mounted on a rack, called actuator, thus can’t move
independently.
 The platters can rotate in speeds of 5400rpm; 7,200rpm; 10,000rpm; or
15,000rpm;
Basic hard drive components
 Disk platters
 Read/Write heads
 Head actuator
 Spindle motor (inside platter hub)
 Logic board ( controller or printed
Circuit Board)
 Cables and Connectors
 Configuration items (such as jumpers or
switches)
Hard disk capacity
 Capacity is calculated with a simple formula.
d=txhxsxc
 Where, d = disk capacity (bytes)
t = number of cylinders
h = number of heads
s = number of sectors per cylinder
c = capacity of a sector (bytes)
 ATA disks
 ATA/SATA are connector architectures.
 ATA is also called Parallel ATA.
 uses the underlying AT Attachment and AT Attachment Packet Interface
(ATA/ATAPI) standards.
 ATA/ATAPI is an evolution of the AT Attachment Interface, which was itself
evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original Integrated Drive
Electronics (IDE) interface.

Bandwidth
16 MB/s originally
later 33, 66, 100 and 133 MB/s
 SATA disks
 The serial ATA (serial advanced technology attachment), or SATA computer
bus, is a storage-interface for connecting host bus adapters to mass storage
devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives.

Bandwidth
1.5, 3.0, 6.0 Gbit/s
Disk Formatting
 Preparing a hard drive for data storage involves three steps:
1. Low-level Formatting (LLF)
2. Partitioning
3. High-level Formatting
Removable Storage Devices
 Can be removed or inserted from/to the computer when the PC is even
ON.
 Used to backup/transport data.
1. Floppy Disks
2. Magnetic Tape Media
3. Iomega Zip Disk
4. Super Disk LS-120 and LS-240
5. Iomega Jaz
6. Castlewood Orb
7. External hard Drives
Floppy Disk
 A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin,
flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or
rectangular plastic shell.
 The drive consists of,
Read/Write Heads – Both sides of disk, move together.
Drive Motor – rotates the plate 300/360 rpm
Stepper Motor – Used to move rw head to the proper
track
Circuit Board – electronics to handle data read or
written
 A 31/2 floppy stores 1.44Mb of data
 A 51/2 floppy stores 110 Kb to 1.2Mb
Magnetic Tape Media
 Has much less expensive costs
 Sequential access (from one end to another)
 Individual files can not be modified or removed from the tape.
 Contents of the entire cartridge must be deleted and rewritten.
 Suitable for complete backups.
Iomega Zip Disk
 Comes in capacities of 100Mb, 250Mb and 750Mb
 Requires a special zip drive to read disks
 Disk can be connected using IDE/SCSI/USB/Firewire/Parallel interfaces
Iomega Jaz
 Capacities of 1Gb or more
 Uses hard disk technology (platters, headers, motors)
 Can be connected similar like zip disks.
Super Disk
 Imation developed the Ls-120 Super Disk in 1990s.
 Flo-Optical technology. (Optical tracking to precisely position read-write
heads on floppy-type media).
 Has capacity of 120MB/240MB
Castlewood Orb
 Like the Jaz drive
 Has capacity from 2.2Gb to about 5.7Gb.
 Nearly the size of a floppy.
External Hard Drives
 Can be connected via USB or Firewire ports
 Capacities similar to internal hard disks
 Both 2-inch/3-inch sizes are used
 Takes the power from the port (no external power source needed)
CD and DVD storage devices
Uses Optical mechanisms to write data in compact formats.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk)
 CD is made of a POLYCARBONATE wafer, 120mm in diameter and 1.2mm
thick with a 15mm hole in the center.
 A single physical track is stamped in the wafer in a in-out spiral.
 The spiral separation is 1.6 microns (millionth of a meter).
 The data is represented by pits and lands on the track.
CD-R
 Uses same principle as in CD-ROMs.
 The pits in the CD-ROM are just black burnt dots in CD-R.
 The burnt dots reflect less light, and indicates a bit.
 A laser light can be used to burn the pits once.
CD-RW
 Can be burnt just like CD-Rs.
 Can be erased and re-burned again and again around 100 times.
DVDs (Digital Versatile Disks)
 Uses the same optical technology.
 The difference is the high density.
DVD-ROM
 CD-ROM sized disks
 Can hold up to 4.7GB (single layer) or 8.5Gb (dual layer) on a single side of
a disk.
 Double sided disks can have twice that amount.
DVD-RAM
 Writable DVD.
 Records on both land grooves and pit grooves.
DVD-R
 Is Write-once mediam
 Has a single sided storage capacity of 4.7Gb.
DVD-RW
 Introduced by the DVD Forum in 1999.
 An extension to DVD-R
Flash Memory Devices
 Is a block based non-volatile memory.
 Memory is changed by a mechanism called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.
 This process removes the charge from the floating gate associated with
each memory cell.
 Flash memory then must be erased before it can be charged with new
data.
 Different types of Flash memory cards are available.

USB Flash Drive

 Unlike other flash memories, this can be read through the USB port.
 Most OS’s have the drivers needed.