K L DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY, HYDERABAD

Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering

SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

CO I : INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Presentation
By
Bachu Srinivas
M.Tech, [Ph.D], MIE, MISTE, M.IAENG
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE, KL H
bachusrinivas@klh.edu.in

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 1

 The main objective of this course is to provide
students with a comprehensive view of the important
issues in understanding, formulation, analyzing
signals and systems, convert the signals into
different transformation techniques like Fourier
Transform, Laplace Transform, Z-transform, Discrete
Time Fourier Transform.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 2

 CO 1: Representation, classification and manipulation
of the basic signals and systems. LTI Systems

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 3

 Introduction to Signals

• A Signal is the function of one or more independent

variables that carries some information to represent a
physical phenomenon.

e.g. ECG, EEG

• Two Types of Signals

1. Continuous-time signals

2. Discrete-time signals

Session
CO No. 9 @ Signal
I: Introduction Analysis
to Signals and Systems 4
 1. Continuous-Time Signals

• Signal that has a value for all points in time

• Function of time
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time
• Commonly found in the physical world
– ex. Human speech
• Displayed graphically as a line

x(t)

t
CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 5
 2. Discrete -Time Signals

• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time

• Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time signal
– Taking the value of the original waveform at specific intervals
in time
• Function of the sample value, n
– Write as x[n]
– Often called a sequence x[n]

• Commonly found in the digital world

– ex. wav file or mp3
• Displayed graphically as individual values
– Called a “stem” plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n
Sample number

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 6

 Examples: CT vs. DT Signals

x(t ) x[n]

t n

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 7

 Sampling

• Discrete-time signals are often obtained by sampling

continuous-time signals.

x(t ) . . x[n]  x(t ) t nT  x(nT )

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 8

 Elementary Signals

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 9

 Unit Ramp Function

t , t  0  t
ramp  t       u    d   t u t 
0 , t  0  

 The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
 It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 10
 Unit Impulse Function

As a approaches zero, g  t  approaches a unit

step and g  t  approaches a unit impulse

Fig: Functions that approach unit step and unit impulse

 So unit impulse function is the derivative of the unit
step function or unit step is the integral of the unit
impulse function.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 11

 Representation of Impulse Function

The area under an impulse is called its strength or weight. It is

represented graphically by a vertical arrow. An impulse with a
strength of one is called a unit impulse.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 12

 Properties of the Impulse Function

The Sampling Property



 g  t   t  t  dt  g t 

0 0

The Scaling Property

  a  t  t0      t  t0 
1
a
The Replication Property
g(t)⊗ δ(t) = g (t)

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 13

 Unit Impulse Train

The unit impulse train is a sum of infinitely uniformly-spaced

impulses and is given by

T  t     t  nT 
n
, n an integer

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 14

 Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals

• Sinusoids and exponentials are important in signal and

system analysis because they arise naturally in the
solutions of the differential equations.
• Sinusoidal Signals can expressed in either of two ways :
cyclic frequency form- A sin (2Пfot )= A sin(2П/To)t
radian frequency form- A sin ωot
ωo = 2Пfo = 2П/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 15

 Real and Complex Signals

A signal x(t) is real signal if its value is a real number

and a complex signal if its value is a complex number

Vector Signals:

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 16

 Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals Contd.

x(t) = A sin (2Пfot+ θ)

Sinusoidal signal
= A sin (ωot+ θ)

x(t) = Aeat Real Exponential

= Aejω̥t = A[cos (ωot) +j sin (ωot)] Complex Exponential

θ = Phase of sinusoidal wave

A = amplitude of a sinusoidal or exponential signal
fo = fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal signal
ωo = radian frequency

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 17

 Real Exponential Signals and damped Sinusoidal

x(t) = e-at x(t) = eαt

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 18

 Signum Function

 1 , t  0
 
sgn  t    0 , t  0   2 u  t   1
1 , t  0 
 

Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step

function.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 19

 SinC Function

Sin t 
SinC t  
t

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 20

 Discrete-Time Signals

• Sampling is the acquisition of the values of a continuous-

time signal at discrete points in time.
• x(t) is a continuous-time signal, x[n] is a discrete-time signal.

x  n   x  nTs  where Ts is the time between samples

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 21

 Discrete Time Exponential and
Sinusoidal Signals

• DT signals can be defined in a manner analogous to their

continuous-time counter part

x[n] = A sin (2Пn/No+θ) Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal

= A sin (2ПFon+ θ)
x[n] = an Discrete Time Exponential Signal
n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
θ = phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Ωo/2 П = Discrete Frequency

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 22

 Discrete Time Unit Step Function or
Unit Sequence Function

1 , n  0
u  n  
0 , n  0

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 23

 Discrete Time Unit Ramp
Function

n , n  0  n
ramp  n      u  m  1
0 , n  0  m

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 24

 Discrete Time Unit Impulse
Function or Unit Pulse Sequence

1 , n  0
  n  
0 , n  0

  n     an  for any non-zero, finite integer a.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 25

 Operations of Signals

• Sometime a given mathematical function may completely

describe a signal .
• Different operations are required for different purposes of
arbitrary signals.
• The operations on signals can be
i. Time Shifting
ii. Time Scaling
iii. Time Inversion or Time Folding

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 26

 Time Shifting

• The original signal x(t) is shifted by an amount tₒ.

• X(t)X(t-to) Signal Delayed Shift to the right

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 27

 Time Shifting Contd.

• X(t)X(t+to) Signal Advanced Shift to the left

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 28

 Time Scaling

• For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time scaled version
of x(t)

• For a ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces and function

speeds up. Graph of the function shrinks.

• For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases and the function

slows down. Graph of the function expands.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 29

 Time scaling Contd.

Example: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) = x(2t).

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 30

 Time scaling Contd.

• Given y(t),
– find w(t) = y(3t)
and v(t) = y(t/3).

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 31

 Time Reversal

 Time reversal is also called time folding

 In Time reversal signal is reversed with respect to time i.e.

y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 32

 Time Reversal Contd.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 33

 Operations of Discrete Time
Functions

Time shifting n  n  n0 , n0 an integer

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 34

 n  Kn K an integer > 1

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 35

 Classification of Signals

 Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals

 Periodic & A periodic Signals

 Even & Odd Signals

 Energy & Power Signals

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 36

 Deterministic & Non-Deterministic
Signals
Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time

• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any

time.

• These signals can be expressed mathematically.

For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 37

 Non Deterministic or Random signals

• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable

w.r.t time.

• There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at any

time.

• These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.

• For example Thermal Noise generated is non

deterministic signal.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 38

 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal

• x (t) is periodic iff x(t) = x(t+Tₒ) for any T and any integer n

• Example

– x(t) = A cos(wt)

– x(t+Tₒ) = A cos[w(t+Tₒ)] = A cos(wt+wTₒ)

= A cos(wt+2p) = A cos(wt)

– Note: Tₒ =1/fₒ ; w=2pfₒ

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 39

 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
Contd.

• For non-periodic signals

x(t) ≠ x(t+Tₒ)

• A non-periodic signal is assumed to have a period

T=∞

• Example of non periodic signal is an exponential signal

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 40

 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
Contd.

Note:
i. When T1/T2 is a rational number, then F1/F2 is
also a rational number. Therefore the given signal
is periodic.

ii. Period, T= LCM of T1 and T2

iii. If T1 and T2 are rational numbers, then first

convert into integers, by multiplying by a common
number and divide LCM by a common number.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 41

 Important Condition of Periodicity for
Discrete Time Signals

• A discrete time signal is periodic if

x(n) = x(n+N)

• For satisfying the above condition the frequency of the

discrete time signal should be ratio of two integers

i.e. fₒ = k/N

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 42

 Sum of Periodic Signals

• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t)

• X(t+T) = x1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m2T2)

• m1T1=m2T2 = Tₒ = Fundamental period

Example: cos(tpi/3)+sin(tpi/4)

– T1=(2pi)/(pi/3)=6; T2 =(2pi)/(pi/4)=8;

– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾ = (rational number) = m2/m1

– m1T1=m2T2  Find m1 and m2

– 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = Tₒ

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 43

 Sum of periodic Signals – may not
always be periodic!

x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t )  cos t  sin 2t

T1=(2pi)/(1)= 2p; T2 =(2pi)/(sqrt(2));

T1/T2= sqrt(2);

– Note: T1/T2 = sqrt(2) is an Irrational number

– X(t) is aperiodic

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 44

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 45
 Real and Complex Signals

A signal x(t) is real signal if its value is a real number

and a complex signal if its value is a complex number

Vector Signals:

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 46

 Even (Symmetric) and
Odd Signals (Anti-Symmetric)

Even Functions Odd Functions

gt   gt  gt    gt 

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 47

 Even and Odd Parts of Functions

g  t   g  t 
The even part of a function is g e  t  
2
g  t   g  t 
The odd part of a function is g o  t  
2
A function whose even part is zero, is odd and a function
whose odd part is zero, is even.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 48

 Various Combinations of Even and
Odd Functions

Function
Sum Difference Product Quotient
type

Even Even
Both Even Even Even

Even Even
Both Odd Odd Odd

Even and
Neither Neither Odd Odd
Odd

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 49

 Derivatives and Integrals of Functions

Function type Derivative Integral

Even Odd Odd + Constant

Odd Even Even

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 50

 Discrete Time Even and Odd Signals

g  n  g  n g  n   g  n

g  n  g  n g  n  g  n
ge  n  go  n 
2 2

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 51

 Combination of even and odd function
for DT Signals

Function
Sum Difference Product Quotient
type
Even Even
Both even Even Even

Even Even
Both odd Odd Odd

Even and Even or Even or

Odd Odd
odd Odd odd

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 52

 Proof Examples

Change t -t
• Prove that product of two
x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
even signals is even.
x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
x1 (t )  x2 (t )  x(t )
• Prove that product of two
odd signals is odd.

• What is the product of an x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 

even signal and an odd x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
signal? Prove it!
x1 (t )   x2 (t )   x(t ) 
x(t )  Even

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 53

 Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal:

• A signal with finite energy and zero power is called

Energy Signal i.e., for energy signal

0<E<∞ and P =0
• Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under
the square of the magnitude of the signal.


 x t 
2
Ex  dt


• The units of signal energy depends on the unit of the

signal.
CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 54
 Energy and Power Signals Contd.

Power Signal:

• Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that case it

is more convenient to deal with average signal power.

• For power signals

0<P<∞ and E = ∞

• Average power of the signal is given by

T /2
1
 x  t  dt
2
Px  lim
T  T
T / 2

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 55

 Energy and Power Signals Contd.

• For a periodic signal x(t) the average signal power is

1
Px   x  t  dt
2

T T
• T is any period of the signal.

• Periodic signals are generally power signals.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 56

 Signal Energy and Power for DT Signal

• A discrtet time signal with finite energy and zero

power is called Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0

• The signal energy of a for a discrete time signal x[n]

is 

 x  n
2
Ex 
n

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 57

 Signal Energy and Power for DT
Signal Contd.

The average signal power of a discrete time power signal

x[n] is
1 N 1
 x  n
2
Px  lim
N  2 N
n N

For a periodic signal x[n] the average signal power is

1
 x  n
2
Px 
N n N

 The notation  n N means the sum over any set of 

 
 consecutive n 's exactly N in length. 
 

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 58

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 59
 What is a “System” ?

 Systems process input signals to produce output signals.

 A system is combination of elements that manipulates
one or more signals to accomplish a function and
produces some output.

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

 The output of the above system is,

yt   Hxt 
Where H is a relaxed system

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 60

 What is a “System” ?

i.e.,
A system may be defined as a physical device that
operates on a signal.

Examples:
i. PA System (Public Address System)
ii. Digital Computer
iii. Mobile Phone

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems (Cont’d) 61

 Relation between Signal and System

Signal: Physical quantity

System: Physical device

The input signal is modified according to the characteristics

of the system and gives some output.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 62

 Types of Systems

 Causal & Anticausal Systems

 Linear & Nonlinear Systems

 Time Invariant & Time Variant Systems

 Stable & Unstable Systems

 Static & Dynamic Systems

 Invertible & Inverse Systems

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 63

 Causal & Noncausal Systems

Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the output of the
system at any time ‘t’ depends only on the present
input, past inputs and past outputs but does not
depend on the future inputs and outputs.

Example:
i. y[n]=x[n] + 2x[n-1]
ii. y[n]=4x[n] - 5x[n-1]

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems (Cont’d) 64

 Causal & Noncausal Systems

 Noncausal system:

If the system output at any time ‘t’ depends on future

inputs or future outputs then the system is called a
noncausal system..

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 65

 Linear and Nonlinear Systems

Definition:
A system is said to be linear, if it satisfies the superposition and
homogeneity principles, otherwise the system is said to be Non-
linear system.

Consider two systems defined as follows:

y1 (t)  Hx1 (t)  , and y 2 (t)  Hx 2 (t)

x 1 (t)
a1
or
x 1 (n) x 3 (t )  a1 * x1 (t)  a 2 * x 2 (t)

+ System
y3 (t)  Ha1 * x1 (t)  a 2 * x 2 (t) 
x 2 (t)
or
x 2 (n) a2
Figure 1: Response of the system to linear combination of inputs

(Cont’d.) 66
 Linear and Nonlinear Systems

x 1 (t)
y1 (t )
or System
a1
x 1 (n)
y3' (t)  a1 * y1 (t)  a 2 * y 2 (t)
+
x 2 (t)
a2
or System
x 2 (n) y2 (t )

Figure 2: Linear combination of responses due to individual inputs

In mathematically,
For the system to be linear if,
y 3 (t)  y13 (t) , for continuous time system
y 3 (n)  y13 (n) , for discrete time system

(Cont’d.) 67
 Linear and Nonlinear Systems

i.e.,

Ha1 * x1 (t)  a 2 * x 2 (t)   a1 * y1 (t)  a 2 * y2 (t)

Here a 1and a 2 are arbitrary constants.

This condition states that the response of the linear combinatio n
of the inputs x1 (t) and x 2 (t)wit h arbitrary constants is same as the
sum of the individual responses due to individual inputs with
arbitrary constants.

Similarly, in discrete time system also.

68
 Linear system: Example 1 (Cont’d)

1. Check whether the following system is linear or not?

Sol:
yt   tx t 

The responses due to individual inputs x1(t) and x2(t)

becomes,

y1 t   Hx1 t   tx 1 t 
y 2 t   Hx 2 t   tx 2 t 
Hence, the linear combination of responses becomes,
y 3 t   a1 y1 t   a 2 y 2 t 

y3 t   a1tx 1 t   a 2 tx 2 t  . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

(Cont’d.) 69
 Linear system: Example 1 (Cont’d)

Now, the response of linear combination of inputs becomes,

y 3' t   Ha1x1 t   a 2 x 2 t 
 t a1 x1 t   a2 x2 t 

y 3' t   a1tx 1 t   a 2 tx 2 t  . . . . . . . . . . . .(2)

on comparing eqn(2) with eqn(1),

y3 t   y3' t 
Hence, the given system is a Linear system

70
 Time Invariant (TIV) and Time Variant (TV)
Systems

Definition:
A CTS is TIV if the time shift in the input signal, results in
corresponding time shift in the o/p.
It is characterized by the property that, if y(n) is the
response to x(n), then y(n-k) is the response to x(n-k), where ‘k’ is
+ve or –ve integer . i.e., if input is delayed, then o/p is also
delayed by the same amount and the wave shape does not
change.

For TIV systems, if y(n)=H[x(n)], then,

y(n - k)  Hx(n - k)
y(n - k)  y(n, k) . . . . for discrete time systems

(Cont’d.) 71
 TIV and TV Systems (Cont’d)

For TIV systems, if y(t)=H[x(t)], then,

y(t - t o )  Hx(t - t o )

yt - t o   yt, t o  . . . . for continuous time systems

 Steps to test for TIV systems:

Step 1: Determine the o/p of system, for delayed input x(t-to).
y(t, t o )  Hx(t - t o )
Step 2: Delay the output itself by ‘to’ i.e., y(t-to), means replace ‘t’ by
‘ to’. i.e., y(t - t )
o

Step 3: If yt - t o   yt, t o  ; TIV system

yt - t o   yt, t o  ; TV system

72
 TIV and TV Systems (Cont’d)

Exercise Questions:
State whether t he following systems are Time Invariant or not.
a) y(t)  2t x t  b) y(t)  xt  sin(20 t)
 
c) y(t)  3 x t 2 d) y(t)  x - t 
e) y(t)  x t   C f) y(t)  3 x 2 t 

Answers:

a). TV system b). TV system

c). TV system d). TV system

e). TIV system f). TIV system

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 73

 Stable & Unstable Systems

 A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-output

stable (BIBO stable) if and only if every bounded
input results in a bounded output.

i.e.
t | x(t ) | M x    t | y(t ) | M y  

 Condition for Stability of an LTI System:

For an LTI system, the condition for BIBO stability
can be transformed to a condition on impulse response,
h(t).

  ht  dt  , for stability of an LTI system


CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 74

 Stable & Unstable Systems (Cont’d)

Exercise Questions:

Test the stability of the LTI systems, whose h(t) are given below.
5 t
a) h(t)  e b) h(t)  e 4t u(t) c) h(t)  te 3t u(t)
d) h(t)  t cost u(t)

Answers:

a). Stable system b). Unstable system

c). Stable system d). Unstable system

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 75

 Static & Dynamic Systems

 A system is called Static or memoryless if its

output at any instant of time t depends at most on
the input signal at the same time but not on the
past or future input. In any other case , the system
is said to be dynamic or to have memory.
Example:
i. y(t)  a x(t) Static Systems
ii. y(t)  t x(t)  6x 3 (t)

i. y(t)  t x(t)  3x(t 2 ) Dynamic Systems

ii. y(t)  x(t)  3x(t - 2)

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 76

 Static & Dynamic Systems (Cont’d)

• A dynamic system possesses memory.

• It has the storage devices.

• A system is said to possess memory if its output

signal depends on past values or future values of the
input signal.

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 77

 Invertible & Inverse Systems

• If a system is invertible it has an Inverse System

x(t) y(t) Inverse x(t)

System
System

Example: y(t)=2x(t)
– System is invertible must have inverse, that is:
– For any x(t) we get a distinct output y(t)
– Thus, the system must have an Inverse
• x(t)=1/2 y(t)=z(t)
System Inverse
x(t) y(t)=2x(t) System x(t)
(multiplier)
(divider)

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 78

 Linear-Time Invariant System

 Special importance for their mathematical tractability

 Most signal processing applications involve LTI systems
 LTI system can be completely characterized by their impulse
response
[n-k] T{.} hk[n]


 Represent any input xn   xk n  k 
k  

    
yn  T   xk n  k    xk Tn  k    xk h n
k
k    k   k  

 From time invariance we arrive at convolution


yn   xk  hn  k   xk   hk 
k  

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 79

 Linear-Time Invariant System

x[n] LTI System yn  xk  hk 


  xk  hn  k   xk  hk 
k  

h[n]

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 80

CO I: Introduction to Signals and Systems 81