Presentation Content

Welding Processes (most common)

Welding Inspection

Welding Failure
 Welding Processes
MMA: Manual Metal Arc Welding
It occurs when an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and the workpiece,
both the rod and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. Simultaneous melting of
the flux coating on the rod will form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from
the surrounding atmosphere. The slag will solidify and cool and must be chipped off
the weld bead once the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is
deposited).
Advantages Disadvantages

Field or shop use High skill factor

Range of Slag inclusions

consumables
All positional Slag removal

Very portable Lots of fumes

Simple equipment Short electrode

length
 Welding Process
SAW: Submerge Arc Welding
Basically, in submerged arc welding, the end of a continuous bare wire
electrode is inserted into a mound of flux that covers the area or joint to
be welded. An arc is initiated, causing the base metal, electrode, and flux
in the immediate vicinity to melt. The electrode is advanced in the
direction of welding and mechanically fed into the arc, while flux is
steadily added. The melted base metal and filler metal flow together to
form a molten pool in the joint. At the same time, the melted flux floats to
the surface to form a protective slag cover
Advantages Disadvantages

Low weld metal costs Restricted in position

Easily automated Arc blow with DC

Deep penetration DC+ Slag inclusions

multi wirespossible Not easily portable

No visible arc light Variable compositions

 Welding Processes
TIG:
Tungsten Inert Gas
The arc is drawn between a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
the workpiece. Shielding is obtained
from an inert gas or gas mixture.
Advantages Disadvantages

High quality Very high skill factor

Good control loss of gas shield on

site
All positional Tungsten inclusions

Low Hydrogen slow and not

portable
No slag removal Ozone production
 Welding Processes
MIG: Metal Inert Gas.
MAG: Metal Active Gas
In this process, coalescence is produced by heating
metals with an arc between a continuous filler metal
(consumable) electrode and the workpiece. The arc,
electrode tip and molten weld metal are shielded from
the atmosphere by a gas. Shielding is obtained entirely
from an externally supplied inert gas, gas mixture, or a
mixture o f a gas and a flux. The electrode wire for MIG
welding is continuously fed into the arc and deposited as
weld metal.
Advantages Disadvantages

Low heat input Lack of sidewall

fusion
Easily automated Loss of gas shield on
sitte
All positional Silica inclusions

Thick & thin materials Not easily portable

No slag removal Ozone profuction

 Welding Inspection
• Welding QA/QC: (PQR, WPS)
– Codes and Standards:
• ASME 31.3 Process Piping
• ASME 31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbon
• ASME 31.8 Gas Transmission Piping systems
• ASME Section IX Boiler &Pressure Vessel code
• API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities
• AWS D 1.1 Structural Welding Code
• BS 4515-1 Welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore—Part 1: Carbon &
Carbon Manganese steel pipelines
• BS 4515-2 Welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore—Part 1: Duplex
stainless steel pipelines
• PDO SP 1177 Specification for Welding of Class 1 Pipelines
(Amendments/Supplements to API Std 1104, 19th Edition, September 1999)
– Procedure qualifications completed & accepted.
– Consumable storage & handling req. accepted
– Qualified contractor inspector available on site
– Consumable manufacturer and batch no. as per WPS requirements
 Welding Inspection

• Inspection Techniques (NDT):

– Visual examination
– Radiography:
– Ultrasonic
– Magnetic Particle Inspection
– Dye Penetration -SS
 Inspection Techniques (DT):

Charpy Impact test

Tensile test
Corrosion Test- for austenitic stainless steels
 Welding Imperfections
How to avoid it?
• Design of the weld based
on the loading condition(s)
the joint will carry Surface porosity

• Accessibility to enable ease Shrinkage Cavity

of welding
• Control of distortion Porosity cluster

• Careful consideration of the Internal solid inclusion Lack of inter-run fusion

welding environment

Isolated internal porosity Lack of sidewall fusion

• Matching welding process
with materials Lack of penetration Lack of root fusion
Access penetration
• A factor of safety applied to
the design stress of the
weld which should be
based on
the consequence of weld
failure and the level of non
destructive testing that is to
 Welding Failure

•Brittle Failure
•Rapid failure initiated from area of stress concentration
•Weld introduce stress by
•weld defects, reduction in the toughness of HAZ

•How to avoid it?

•Control welding heat input
•Avoid weld defects
•reduce tensile residual stresses by heat treatment
 Welding Failure
•Fatigue Failure
•Formation of cracking caused by repeated
loadings
•Sensitive to stress concentration
•Weld introduce stress by
•Undercut or incomplete root penetration,
surface defect.
•How to avoid it?
•Good Engineering Design (low stress
concentiration)
•Grind weld to remove defects
•Stress relief
 End
of
Presentation
Back up Slides
 Welding Inspection

• Radiography:
• Based on the ability of the X-rays and gamma
rays to penetrate metal and produce image in a
sensitive film. In the defect location the amount
of radiation is higher.
• Require fully trained operator and interpreter.
• For its convenience X-ray is mostly used.
• HSE requirement
 Types of Electrod
Coating
Type Feature
Cellulosic  deep penetration in all positions
 suitability for vertical down welding
 reasonably good mechanical properties
 high level of hydrogen generated - risk of
cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)

Rutile  moderate weld metal mechanical properties

 good bead profile produced through the viscous
slag
 positional welding possible with a fluid slag
(containing fluoride)
 easily removable slag

Low-Hydrogen  low weld metal produces hydrogen

 requires high welding currents/speeds
 poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface
profile)
 slag removal difficult
 TIME TEMPERATURE
TRANSFORMATION CURVE FOR
0.8% CARBON STEEL

800 800
723 C, A1 Stable Austenite
700 700
Coarse Pearlite

600 Fine Pearlite 600

Temperature, C

500 500
Unstable Austenite

Ferrite and coarse carbides

400 400

300 300
Ferrite and fine carbides
Ms 210 C
20 20
0 Unstable Austenite + Martensite 0

Presentation
M90 110 C

Content
MF -50 C
0.5 1 5 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time Seconds
 THE IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

3000
1600 Delta Iron, 
Delta Iron + Liquid
1535 C Liquid 2800
1500
1493 C
1400 2600
1390 C Delta Iron Cementite
+ Austenite +
1300 Liquid 2400
Austenite + Liquid
Temperature, C

1200 2200

Temperature, F
Austenite

Cementite + Ledeburite
1100 (γ) 2000
1000 1800
Austenite, Eutectic

4.3% C Eutectic (Ledeburite)

A3, 910 C
900 +
1600
Cementite
800 Austenite + Cementite
Ferrite + 1400
Austenite A1, 723 C
0.80% C Eutectoid (Pearlite)

700
1200
600 Pearlite
+ 1000
500 Ferrite
(α) Pearlite Cementite, Pearlite
+ +
Cementite Transformed Eutectic
210 C
Irons
Steels Cast Irons

0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Carbon, %
 Testing The Welds
• Mechanical: Describes the action of force and motion.
• Properties: something that makes one material deferent from another.
• Hardness Test: The ability of a material to resist indentation. Diamond or steel ball to be used to
form an indentation.
• Toughness Test: The ability of a material to absorb impact energy. Test types are Charpy V, Izod,
and Crack tip opening displacement.
• Ductility ( Elongation %): The ability to deform under tensile force. Tensile Strength: The ability
to resist a pulling force. The test show the yield point and tensile strength.
• Non destructive test is used to check beyond visual inspection limitation
• Penetrate Testing: check surface cracks, and leak in weldment. There are two types colour
contrast and fluorescent penetrate. It consist of penetrant, and developer.
• Magnetic Particle Testing: Check surface defects, especially surface cracks.It can show also
subsurface imperfections. It consist of contrast, magnet - ink and magnetic field.
• Ultrasonic Testing: Check surface and subsurface flaws including those too small to be detected
by other tests. It consist of added couplant and CRT display unit and probe.
• Radiographic Testing: Check internal flaws like cracks, porosity, blowholes, incomplete root
penetration, inclusions, and burn through. Radiographic rays are two X rays ( from cathode ray
tube C.R.T) and Gamma rays( from a radioactive isotope). It consist of prepared file, exposure to
radioactive source the developed X ray film.
• Radiographic test does not detect the crack in plane in same direction of the ray beam ( Ultrasonic
test can detect that) it detect the defects in right angle to beam spread.
 Welding Management
• Welding management:
• Planning the tasks
• Collecting the data
• Writing a procedure for use or for trial
• Making test welds
• Evaluating the results of the tests
• Approving the procedure of the relevant code
• Preparing the documentation.
• Welding Information:
• Parent material: type, thickness, surface condition, and identifying marks
• Welding process: process type (MMA,TIG..etc), equipment, consumables.
• Joint Design: position, edge preparation, method of cleaning…etc.
• Welding position: Site, filler materials, weld size, heat input control…etc.
• Thermal Treatment:Preheat and inter-pass temp. and Post weld treatment ..etc.
• Approval of the procedure: mechanical properties and mechanical testing.
 Welding Requirement
• Sources of heating:
• Electric Arc, laser, Electron beam (in vacuum) Plasma ( 50,000C) , Oxy
acetylene, and electrical resistance.
• Protection against:
• 1. From surrounding atmosphere.
• 2. Combustion Arc.
• 3. Solidity liquid material (hydrogen)
• Mixing:
• Adding two Alloys to produce strong weld by mixing and changing flux coating.
• Electric Arc Welding process: passage of current through a conductive media (
plasma).
• As a start up --> high voltage is required
• to maintain --> Lower voltage is required.
• Gas converted to plasma ( mixed gas)
• Cleaning:
• To remove a rubbish from welding material during welding. Two ways de-oxidant
in wire ( function of flux coating) and Ca -F
 Welding Consumables

• Welding Consumables are all the things used in the production of a weld.
• SMAW: used short electrodes which are covered in a flux coating which
include Arc striking, Arc stabilisation, Arc Shielding, De-oxidising,
Alloying, Slag formation, Aide positional welding, and Reduce hydrogen
content.
• Electrode groups are Rutile ( Titania and CO2 for general purpose),
Basic (Calcium and CO2 for high quality work), and Cellulosic ( Cellulose
and H2 for pipe root runs).
• Shielding gas selection depends on materials to be welded and
commercially available gas. Effectiveness of gas shield depends on gas
density, current, gas flow, welding position. The shielding gases are
Argon, Argon - Hydrogen mixtures, Helium, Helium - argon mixtures, and
Argon - nitrogen.
• The rods should be smooth feeding, control of angle of entry into the
weld pool and stable power source are all essential for stable operation.
 Welding Definition
• Welding: is union between 2 material caused by heat or/ and pressure.
• Joint: is a configuration of members. The junction of members or the edges of members which are
to be joined or have been joined.
• Weld root: The position in a prepared butt joint where the parts to be jointed are nearest together
or in a square butt joint, the edges of the fusion faces which are further from the faces of the
intended weld or in a fillet weld, the apex of the angle formed by the two fusion faces.
• Root Face: The surface formed by the “squaring off” of the root edge of the fusion face to avoid a
sharp edge at the root of the preparation.
• Fusion zone: The depth to which the parent material has been fused.
• Fusion boundary: in a weldment, the interface between weld material and base material, or
between base material parts when filler material is not used.
• Heat Affected Zone (HAZ): The part of the parent material where the properties have been
changed by the heat of welding or cutting but not melted.
• Weld Face: The surface of a weld seen from the side from which the weld was made.
• Butt welding: Remove some material to get access for the welding whatever you take off have to
be put back. Single ( efficiency and Cost) but Double ( to control distribution pressure).
• Single V is the most common one 90% used for pipes and tubes.
• Double V is second common one used for plates or heavy walls.
• Convex is the most common in fillet used for pipe supports and structure work.
• Spot: most common in resisting used in sheet material and electrical panel. Presentation
Content
 PDO welding
standards,
procedures and
practices Presentation
Content

• ASME Section IX Boiler &Pressure Vessel code

• API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities
• AWS D 1.1 Structural Welding Code
• BS 4515-1 Welding of steel pipelines on land and
offshore—Part 1: Carbon & Carbon Manganese steel
pipelines
• BS 4515-2 Welding of steel pipelines on land and
offshore—Part 1: Duplex stainless steel pipelines
 Analysis of
relationship of
material properties
• Fatigue fracture
– failures are initiated from stress concentrations, like a poor weld toe
blend, undercut, or incomplete root penetration.

• Ductile fracture
– can be identified by the angle of the fracture to the direction of the
applied stress as the fracture always occurs at 45 degree.

• Brittle fracture
– can be identified as it is flat and featureless with chevron that point
towards the point of initiation.
 Effects of arc welding

• Ferrous Materials
– No need shield gas process
• Ferrous Alloys
– SS need Shield gas process
• Non-Ferrous Materials
– Al need shield gas process
• Non-Ferrous Alloys Presentation
Content
– Ni alloy need Shied gas process
What is WPS?
Welding procedure specification (WPS) is a
written qualified welding procedure to provide
direction for making production welding to Code
requirements
Why do we
need WPS?

To prove weld
would be
mechanical and
metallurgical
compatible with
parent metal

To ensure only
sound welding
practices are
employed in
fabrication
 Steps in qualifying a
WPS

• Identify the need to qualify a WPS

• Establish Preliminary/provisional WPS
• Obtain endorsement by Welding TA-2
• Conduct welding test
• Carry out NDT (visual, MT and/or RT)
• Prepare specimens for destructive testing
• Carryout mechanical testing at PDO approved
testing Laboratory
• Prepare procedure qualification record
• Obtain endorsement by Welding TA-2
• Prepare WPS based on PQR
• Obtain Endorsement by Welding TA-2 on WPS
 Why do we need PQR?

To prove weld would be mechanical and

metallurgical compatible with parent metal

To ensure only sound welding practices

are employed in fabrication

Back
 Essential Variables
(a Any change in the welding process or (d) Diameter (D) Change in pipe or branch diameter outside the following
) change from manual to automatic ranges:
Welding operation or vice versa. D <33.4 mm; D to 2D
process D 33.4 mm to 323 mm; 0.5D to 2D, Maximum qualified
is D = 323 mm
D >= 323 mm; 0.5D to Unlimited
(e) Joint design Any change in joint configuration outside the specified
(b Any change outside ASME IX limits tolerance.
) shall constitute an essential
(f) Welding position Any change, except that pipe PQRs qualified in the 6G
variable. An increase in the
carbon equivalent value greater position shall cover all positions in production
Base than 0.03 units shall also be welding.
materials considered an essential variable. (g) Welding progression A change from uphill to downhill or vice versa.
(h) Filler metal/electrode and Any change in size, classification or trade name. Change
flux of filler wire trade name without re qualification
may be permitted when corrosion or impact
testing is not required, subject to the approval of
the Company welding TA-2.
(i) Shielding or backing gas A change of more than ±20% in shielding or backing gas
flow flow or the discontinuance of backing gas purging
(c The following thickness limits shall be
at a stage earlier than that of the qualification test.
) applied for Butt welds.
Thickness (j) Shielding or backing gas Any change.
(t) composition
(k) Number and sequence of Any change in the sequence of filling or capping passes.
passes
(l) Electrical characteristics A change of electrode polarity or current type, including
the addition or deletion of pulsating current.
(m) Welding current, voltage Any change resulting in a heat input variation greater
and speed of travel than ±10% of that qualified.
(n) Heat input Any change greater than ±10%.
(o) Preheat or interpass Any reduction in preheat temperature. Or any increase
temperature of more than 50°C.
(p) Post weld heat treatment The addition or deletion of PWHT and any change in
heat treatment procedure or parameters.
 Welding Procedure
Qualification
Essential Variable:

• A change in welding condition which will

affect the mechanical properties (other
than notch toughness) of weldment
• e.g. P- Number, welding process, filler
metal, preheat, PWHT etc.
 Welding Procedure
Qualification
Supplementary Essential Variable:

• A change in welding condition which will

affect the notch toughness properties of
weldment

• e.g. Change in welding process,

 Welding Procedure
Qualification
Nonessential Variable:

• A change in welding condition which will

not affect the mechanical properties of
a weldment

• e.g. joint design, method of back

cleaning