Gas Exchange

GAS
EXCHANGE
WHAT IS GAS EXCHANGE?
• The uptake of molecular oxygen

from the environment and the
discharge of carbon dioxide to
the environment
• Delivery of oxygen from the lungs

to the bloodstream
• Elimination of carbon dioxide

from the bloodstream to the lungs
THE BASIS OF GAS EXCHANGE
• Respiration depends on diffusion of

gaseous oxygen (O2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) down their
concentration gradients
• Gases enter and leave the internal

environment across a thin, moist
layer (respiratory surface) that
dissolves the gases
PRINCIPLES INFLUENCING GAS EXCHANGE
• Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through diffusion.
• Blood that is low in oxygen concentration and high in carbon dioxide

concentration undergoes gas exchange with air in the lungs.
• The air in the lungs has a higher concentration of oxygen than that of
oxygen-depleted blood and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide.
This concentration gradient allows for gas exchange during
respiration.
RESPIRATORY SURFACE
• Part of an animal’s body where gases

are exchanged with the environment . To
allow gas exchange, it must be moist,
large enough and protected from
dessication.
• Covered with thin, moist epithelial cells

that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to
exchange. Those gases can only cross
cell membranes when they are
dissolved in water or an aqueous
solution, thus respiratory surfaces must
be moist.
PARTIAL PRESSURES
• Measure of the concentration of the individual components in a mixture of
gases.
• Partial Pressures for each gas in the atmosphere can be computed
Example: The partial pressure of oxygen is 160 mm Hg.
Fick’s Law
• States that the amount of diffusion of a gas across a membrane is proportional
to the surface area and the difference in partial pressure between the two
sides and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane.
SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO
• As an animal grows, the surface area increases at a lesser

rate than its volume, making diffusion of gases into the
interior more difficult.
• Animals must have a body design that keeps internal cells

close to the surface or must have a system to move the
gases inward.
VENTILATION
• Active movement of the respiratory medium (air or water)
across the respiratory surface
VENTILATION OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE

• Reduces the formation of static boundary layers and improves
efficiency of gas exchange
TYPES OF VENTILATION
• Nondirectional
• Tidal
• Unidirectoinal
NONDIRECTIONAL VENTILATION
• medium flows past the
respiratory surface in an
unpredictable pattern
TIDAL VENTILATION
•medium moves in and out
UNIDIRECTIONAL VENTILATION
•medium enters the chamber at

one point and exits at another
•with unidirectional ventilation, the

blood can flow in three ways
relative to the flow of the medium
BONY FISH
• moves the gill covers(operculum) for water

carrying oxygen to flow across the gill.
HUMANS
• move the muscles of the thorax to
expand and contract the chest cavity and
move air in and out of the lungs.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS OF PROTEINS
• contain one or more metal ions that reversibly bind to oxygen atoms
• adaptations of animals for gas exchange include respiratory pigments
that bind and transport gases.
HEMOGLOBIN
• respiratory pigments of vertebrates

• iron-containing respiratory protein
found in vertebrate red blood cells
HEMOCYANIN
• is a protein found in mollusks that carries
oxygen in much the same way as
hemoglobin carries oxygen in human
blood
• respiratory pigments of
invertebrates(arthropods and molluscs)
MYOGLOBIN
• It is distantly related to hemoglobin
which is the iron- and oxygen-binding
protein in blood, specifically in the red
blood cells
• found in muscles of vertebrates and

some invertebrates
BLOOD
• cannot carry sufficient oxygen and
carbon dioxide in dissolved form
to meet the body’s requirements;
hemoglobin helps enhance its
capacity
GAS EXCHANGE
IN PLANTS
GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
• Cellular respiration in plants is the
process used by plants to convert nutrients
obtained from soil into energy which fuels
the plants’ cellular activities.
• Photosynthesis is the process where light

energy is converted into chemical energy
stored in glucose that can later be used in
respiration.
Dark – Only respiration takes place. Oxygen is
consumed while carbon dioxide is released.
Dim sunlight –A plant consumes all the oxygen

photosynthesis generates. It also uses all the
carbon dioxide respiration creates.
Bright sunlight – Photosynthesis uses carbon

dioxide and makes oxygen faster than respiration
produces carbon dioxide and consumes oxygen.
• Respiration takes place individually in
all parts of the plants like stem, roots,
leaves
• The rate of respiration is slow in plants

whereas it is faster in humans and
animals.
• Diffusion is the only process through

which much needed oxygen is
supplied to all the cells of the plants.
RESPIRATION IN LEAVES
• Respiration in leaves takes
places at both day and night
time
• Oxygen is produced during

photosynthesis while carbon
dioxide is produced during
respiration
STOMATA IN LEAVES
• Stomata are tiny openings or pores

in plant tissue that allow for gas
exchange.
• Specialized cells known as guard

cells surround stomata and
function to open and close
stomatal pores.
• Stomata allow a plant to take in

carbon dioxide, which is needed
for photosynthesis
OPENING AND CLOSING OF THE STOMATA
• The stomata opens when turgor

develops within the two guard cells
flanking each stoma, the thin outer
walls bulge out and force the inner
walls into a crescent shape.
• When the guard cells lose turgor,

the elastic inner walls regain their
original shape and the stoma
closes.
RESPIRATION IN STEMS
LENTICELS IN STEMS
• Lenticels are in the small area of a
bark.
• In higher plants or woody plants,

the gaseous exchange is carried
out by lenticels.
• These cells are loosely placed and

therefore allow the gaseous
exchange of respiratory gases
between air and living cells of the
woody stem.
RESPIRATION IN ROOTS
• Roots of the plant take oxygen from

the air that is present in-between the
particles of soil through the root hair.
• Oxygen diffuses in root hair and

reaches all the other cells of the roots
How plants cope in the mangroves
Breathing Roots
• An aerial root may be defined as a root
which, for part of the day at least, is
exposed to the air.
• The mangrove mud is rather anaerobic

(oxygen poor) and unstable and different
plants have root adaptations to cope with
these conditions.
 Pneumatophores
RESPIRATION IN ROOTS
Pneumatophores
• Specialized root that grows upwards out

of the water or mud to reach the air and
obtain oxygen for the root systems of
trees that live in swampy or tidal habitats
• Pneumatophores allow gaseous

exchange and they also provide support
to the plant.
RESPIRATORY
SURFACES IN
INVERTEBRATES
RESPIRATORY SURFACES
INTEGUMENTARY EXCHANGE
•Refers to the general body surface or skin used by animals with

high surface-to-volume ratio;
e.g. flatworm and earthworm.
•Amphibians also use their skin in addition to lungs as gas exchange
•Some invertebrates that live in aquatic or damp environments have

no respiratory organs;
•Gases diffuse across the skin

SKIN
Cut
•Some animals, such as

amphibians and earthworms,
can use their skin Cross section
of respiratory
(integument) to exchange surface (the
skin covering
gases between the external the body)
environment and the

circulatory system due to the
Capillaries
network of capillaries that lie
below the skin.
EXTERNAL GILLS
• Used by invertebrates that
live in aquatic habitats, gills
are highly folded, thin
walled, vascularized
epidermis that project
outward form of the body;
e.g. crayfish, lobster, sea
star, nudibranch
LUNGS
•Saclike respiratory organs with
branching tubes that deliver air
to a respiratory surface
•Snails and slugs that spend

some time on land have a lung
instead of, or in addition to gills
SNAIL WITH LUNGS
TRACHEAL SYSTEM Body surface
•Insects and spiders with a

hard integument have Respiratory
surface
branching tracheal tubes that O2
Body cells (air tubes)
(no capillaries)
open to the surface through CO2
spiracles (no respiratory

protein required)
•They end with a moist, thin

membrane that butts up
against body cells (respiratory
surface)
Fig. 39-7, p. 685

SPIRACLES
• Spiracles are holes all over an

insects body.
• From the spiracles, tubes
branch out
• Finest branches (0.001mm)
reach every cell
• Insects still have circulatory
system to carry other materials
BOOK LUNGS
• Some spiders also have thin
sheets of respiratory tissue that
exchange oxygen with a
respiratory pigment
(Hemocyanin) in blood
• Gas exchange occurs over thin

sheets of tissue
• Air enters the body through a

spiracle
RESPIRATORY
SURFACES IN
VERTEBRATES
RESPIRATORY SURFACES IN VERTEBRATES
EXTERNAL GILLS
• Thin, vascularized epidermis that project
from the body surface of a few
amphibians
• Vertebrates such as salamanders are

also characterized by external gills,
which in their case are filamentous
structures that extend from the head
region.
Example: Larval Salamander

INTERNAL GILLS
•Filamentous respiratory organs
that increase surface area for gas
exchange in water
Body surface
•Gills are adapted for gas
exchange in aquatic environments Respiratory
surface
(gill)
•In fish, respiration takes place in

the gills. Gills collect dissolved
CO2 Capillary
oxygen from the water and release
carbon dioxide. O2
COUNTERCURRENT FLOW
• water flows over the gills

and blood circulates through
them in opposite direction
• highly efficient in extracting

oxygen from water, whose
oxygen content is lower than
air.
•.
LUNGS
• internal respiratory surfaces shaped as a Snails: Internal mantle
cavity or sac
Spiders: book lungs
• provide a membrane for gaseous exchange
Frogs: balloon like
• since they are not in direct contact with all lungs
other parts of the body, it requires circulatory
system to transport gases to the rest of the Vertebrates: Highly
body folded epithelium
• found in birds, reptiles and mammals Humans (~ 100m2

surface area)
•.
AMPHIBIAN LUNGS
• 2 simple sacs internal
lining may be smooth or
have simple sacculations
or pockets air exchanged
via positive-pressure
ventilation
•.
REPTILIAN LUNGS
• simple sacs in sphenodon
and snakes
• air exchanged via positive-
pressure ventilation
• lizards, crocodilians, &
turtles - lining is septate,
with lots of chambers &
sub chambers
AVIAN LUNGS
• air sacs (diverticula of lungs)
extensively distributed
throughout most of the body
• arrangement of air ducts in
lungs ----> no passageway is
a dead-end
• air flow through lungs
(parabronchi) is unidirectional
MAMALIAN LUNGS
• Multichambered & usually
divided into lobes
• air flow is bidirectional
• air exchanged via negative
pressure ventilation, with
pressures changing due to
contraction & relaxation of
diaphragm & intercostal
muscles
BREATHING
MECHANISMS IN
VERTEBRATES
BREATHING MECHANISMS IN VERTEBRATES
AMPHIBIANS
• ventilate their lungs by positive
pressure breathing which forces air
down the trachea.
• Amphibians, such as frogs, live

partly on land and partly in water.
Their respiratory structure must be
adapted so they can breathe both in
water and on land. They breathe
through the skin, mouth and lungs.
The mechanism of respiration for the amphibian

involves three methods:
1. Adaptation for cutaneous respiration
• The skin of amphibians adapts as it is thin so as to allow gaseous
exchanges to occur easily and efficiently.
• When the amphibians are on land, the skin is also moist so that the
gases from the atmosphere can be dissolved readily.
• There are also many blood capillaries in the skin so that when they
are in water, the large number of blood capillaries increases the rate
of exchanges of the oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood
capillaries and the surrounding water.
2. Adaptation for buccal respiration
• The thin wall of the large mouth cavity contains many blood
capillaries.
• The large number of blood capillaries increases the rate of diffusion of

oxygen and carbon dioxide in the mouth cavity.
• At the same time, the thin epithelium lining is moist. This facilitates the
gaseous exchanges through the epithelium.
3. Adaptation of lungs for pulmonary respiration
• Amphibians use pulmonary respiration when they are on land.
• The inner walls of the lungs are heavily folded. This increases the
surface area and thus increases the rate of gaseous exchanges.
• The walls of the lungs are also thin and this allows the gases to diffuse
readily.
• The walls are also moist, enabling the oxygen to dissolve first in them
before diffusing across.
BIRDS
• use a system of air sacs as blower to keep air flowing through the
lungs in one direction only, preventing the mixing of incoming and
outgoing air
• lungs of birds differ from those of mammals and other animals, which
breathe in and out of fixed volume.
• with this arrangement the rising concentration of oxygen in the blood

in the lungs gradually approaches the falling concentration in the air
during the brief period the air is inhaled.
MAMMALS
• ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing which pulls

air into the lungs when the volume of the lungs expands as the
rib muscles and diaphragm contract. However, the incoming
and outgoing air mix, decreasing the efficiency of ventilation.
• mammalian respiratory systems rely on a single large muscle

at the base of the lungs. This muscle is called a diaphragm.
MAMMALS
• Different mammals breathe differently. Some breathe through

the nose, others breathe through the mouth. Some mammals
are able to breathe through either the nose or the mouth. As
the air passes through the nose or down the trachea, or airway,
small hairs and microscopic hair-like structures filter the air by
attracting dust and microbes that could cause damage or
infection in the lungs.
HUMAN
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
WHAT IS HUMAN RESPIRATION?

• The human respiratory
system allows one to
obtain oxygen, eliminate
carbon dioxide.
• Breathing consists of two
phases, inspiration and
expiration
• Inspiration- the process

of taking in air
• Expiration- the process
of blowing out air
TWO TYPES OF RESPIRATION
INTERNAL RESPIRATION
• THE EXCHANGE OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND
OXYGEN BETWEEN THE CELLS AND
BLOODSTREAM.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• THE PROCESS WHEN CELLS USE THE OXYGEN
AND NUTRIENTS TO PRODUCE ENERGY, WATER, &
CARBON DIOXIDE.
PROCESS OF RESPIRATION
INSPIRATION
• INHALATION
• PROCESS OF BREATHING IN AIR
• DIAPHRAGM & INTERCOSTAL

MUSCLES CONTRACT/CREATES A
VACUUM
• OXYGEN ENTERS THE LUNGS

(EXCHANGE OF GASES)
EXPIRATION
• EXHALATION
• PROCESS OF AIR LEAVING THE

LUNGS
• DIAPHRAGM AND INTERCOSTAL

MUSCLES RELAX
• AIR IS FORCED OUT AND CARBON

DIOXIDE IS REMOVED FROM THE
LUNGS
FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

NOSE
NOSTRILS (NARES)
• Two openings where air enters
NASAL SEPTUM
• Wall of cartilage dividing the nose into two
hollow spaces
NASAL CAVITIES
• Two hollow spaces
• Lined with a mucous membrane which
produces mucous to trap pathogens
(germs)
• As air enters the cavities, it is warmed,
filtered, and moistened
CILIA
• tiny hairlike structures in

nasal cavity
• traps dirt and pathogens
the trapped particles are
then pushed toward
esophagus and swallowed.
PHARYNX
• is the body cavity that

connects the nasal and oral
cavities with the larynx and
esophagus.
• another name for the throat
• located behind the nasal
cavities
SECTIONS OF PHARYNX
NASOPHARYNX
• upper section behind
nasal cavities contains
pharyngeal tonsils
adenoids (lymphatic
tissue) eustachian tube
openings from ear
SECTIONS OF PHARYNX
OROPHARYNX
• middle section
located behind oral cavity
receives air from
nasopharynx & food/air
from the mouth
SECTIONS OF PHARYNX
LARYNGOPHARYNX
• bottom section of pharynx
which branches into:
 TRACHEA
Carries air to/from the
lungs
 ESOPHAGUS
Carries food to the
stomach
LARYNX
◉ voice box
 lies between the
pharynx & trachea
◉ has framework of
cartilage called the
Adam's apple
LARYNX
◉ Contains two folds called vocal cords
A) GLOTTIS
– opening between the
vocal cords as air leaves
the lungs, the vocal cords
vibrate and produce sound.
LARYNX
B) EPIGLOTTIS
◉ leaf like structure

◉ closes the opening into
larynx during swallowing
◉ prevents food & liquids
from entering respiratory
tract
WHAT IS AN ADAMS APPLE?
◉ When the larynx grows

larger during puberty, it
sticks out at the front of the
throat. This is what's called
an Adam's apple. Everyone's
larynx grows during puberty,
but a girl's larynx doesn't
grow as much as a boy's
larynx. However, some girls
do also have Adam's
apples.
TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)
◉ tube extending from larynx
to center of the chest
◉ carries air between pharynx
and bronchi
◉ contains a series of c-
shaped cartilage which
opens in back and helps
keep the trachea open
TWO DIVISIONS OF TRACHEA

• near center of chest
BRONCHI
BRONCHUS
• one enters each lung
• carries air from
trachea to lungs
IN LUNGS
bronchi divide
into smaller
bronchi
SMALLEST BRANCHES
BRONCHIOLES
◉ end in air sacs
called alveoli
ALVEOLI
◉ resembles bunch of grapes

◉ air sacs
◉ an adult lung contains
approximately 500 million alveoli
◉ made of one layer of squamous
epithelium tissue
◉ rich network of blood capillaries
that allow oxygen & carbon dioxide
to exchange between blood & the
lungs
THE INNER SURFACES OF THE ALVEOLI ARE

COVERED WITH SURFACTANT WHICH IS A
LIPID (FATTY SUBSTANCE) THAT HELPS
PREVENT THE ALVEOLI FROM COLLAPSING.
PREMATURE BABIES OFTEN DO NOT HAVE

ENOUGH SURFACTANT WHICH CAN LEAD TO
RESPIRATORY DISTRESS OR RESPIRATORY
FAILURE.
NORMAL LUNGS
LUNGS OF A SMOKER
LUNGS
◉ divisions of the bronchi
and alveoli located in
the thoracic cavity
◉ The lungs main role is
to bring in air
from the atmosphere
and pass oxygen
into the bloodstream.
LUNGS
RIGHT LUNG
◉ Has 3 sections/lobes
■ SUPERIOR
■ MIDDLE
■ INFERIOR
LEFT LUNG
◉ Has 2 sections/lobes
■ SUPERIOR
■ INFERIOR
Smaller because heart lies more to the left side of the chest
RIGHT LUNG WITH

ANTERIOR CANCER
TUMOR
RIGHT LUNG
LOWER LOBE
PNEUMONIA
PLEURA
◉ Membrane or sac enclosing
each lung
VISCERAL PLEURA
attaches to lung surface
PARIETAL PLEURA
attaches to chest wall
PLEURA SPACE IS LOCATED
• Between the two layers
which is filled with a thin
layer of pleural fluid.
Helps to lubricate the
membrane.
 During inspiration
(inhalation), the
diaphragm and
intercostal muscles
contract.
 During exhalation,
these muscles relax.
The diaphragm domes
upwards.
HOW BREATHING IS CONTROLLED?

• Breathing is controlled by the medulla
oblongata.
• The medulla oblongata monitors carbon
dioxide in the blood.
• As carbon dioxide increases, nerve impulses
make the diaphragm contract, bringing air
into the lungs.
• The higher the carbon dioxide level, the
stronger the impulses.
COORDINATION OF
GAS EXCHANGE
AND CIRCULATION
Coordination of the gas exchange and circulation
• The respiratory and circulatory

systems work together to deliver
oxygen to the tissues and to
remove the carbon dioxide
byproduct of metabolism from the
body.
Coordination
Coordination of the
of the gasrespiratory
exchange system and
and circulation
circulatory system
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
• Oxygen diffuses down a pressure gradient from

the lungs into the blood plasma to red blood
cells and binds to hemoglobin (4 hemoglobin to
form oxyhemoglobin
• Hemoglobin gives up its oxygen in tissues where

partial pressure of oxygen is low, blood is warmer,
partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher, and
pH is lower; these four conditions occur in tissues
with high metabolism
Coordination
Coordination of the
exchange system and
and circulation
circulatory system
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
• Carbon dioxide diffuses down its partial pressure

gradient from the tissues into the blood plasma
and red blood cells to air in alveoli
• 7% is dissolved in plasma,23% binds with

hemoglobin to form
• Bicarbonate and carbonic acid formation is

enhanced by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase,
which is located in the red blood cells
Coordination
Coordination of the
exchange system and
and circulation
circulatory system
COORDINATION OF AIR FLOW WITH BLOOD FLOW
• Gas exchange in the alveoli is most efficient when air flow equals
the rate of blood flow
• Local controls within the lungs correct imbalances in air and blood
flow by constricting or dilating both bronchioles and arterioles
CONTROL OF
RESPIRATION IN
VERTEBRATES
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION IN VERTEBRATES
Nervous System
• controls oxygen and carbon dioxide levels for the entire
body by regulating the rate and depth of breathing
Brain
• monitors the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid through
sensors(reflecting carbon dioxide concentration in the
blood)
Secondary control
• is exerted by sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that
monitor blood levels of oxygen as well as carbon
dioxide(via blood pH)
CONTROL
CONTROL OF
OF RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION IN
IN VERTEBRATES
VERTEBRATES
• VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS

 controls voluntary forced exhalation and acts to
increase the force of inspiration
• DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (NUCLEUS TRACTUS

SOLITARIUS)
 controls mostly inspiratory movements and timing.
• VENTILATORY RATE( minute volume)

 tightly controlled and determined primarily by blood
levels of carbon dioxide as determined by metabolic
rate
• CHEMORECEPTORS
 can detect changes in blood pH that require changes in
involuntary respiration to correct. The apneustic
(stimulating) and pnuemotaxic (limiting) centers of the
pons work together to control rate of breathing.
• MEDULLA
 sends signals to the muscles that initiate inspiration and
expiration and controls non respiratory air movement
reflexes, like coughing and sneezing.
THREE TYPES OF IMPORTANT RESPIRATORY NERVES:
PHRENIC NERVES
 stimulate the activity of the diaphragm
 composed of two nerves, the right and left phrenic nerve,
which pass through the right and left side of the heart
respectively.
 autonomic nerves
VAGUS NERVES
• innervates the diaphragm as well as movements in the larynx and
pharynx.
• provides parasympathetic stimulation for the heart and the
digestive system.
• major autonomic nerve
POSTERIOR THORACIC NERVES

• stimulate the intercostal muscles located around the pleura.
• considered to be part of a larger group of intercostal nerves
that stimulate regions across the thorax and abdomen
• somatic nerves
These three types of nerves continue the signal of

ascending respiratory pathway from the spinal cord
to stimulate muscles that perform the movements
needed for respiration
Damage to any of these three respiratory nerves

can cause severe problems, such as diaphragm
paralysis if the phrenic nerves are damaged. Less
severe damage can cause irritation to the phrenic
or vagus nerves, which can result in hiccups.
RESPIRATORY ADAPTIONS TO EXTREME CONDITIONS
SUCH AS LOW-OXYGEN ENVIRONMENT
• Animals that inhabit high altitudes have larger hearts and lungs, and
hemoglobin with a high affinity for binding oxygen
• Many diving animals have unusually high hematocritis ( ratio of the

volume of packed red blood cells to the volume of whole blood) and
also muscles with high amounts of myoglobin (an oxygen-binding
protein found in muscle cells)
RESPIRATORY
PROBLEMS
RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS
ASTHMA
• The muscles around bronchioles

contract more than usual,
increasing resistance to airflow
• This can make breathing difficult

and trigger coughing, wheezing
and shortness of breath.
EMPHYSEMA
• A abnormal condition of the lungs

marked by decreased respiratory
function; associated with smoking or
chronic bronchitis or old age
• Emphysema makes it hard to catch

your breath. You may also have a
chronic cough and have trouble
breathing during exercise.
LUNG CANCER
• Lung cancer is the uncontrolled

growth of abnormal cells in one
or both lungs
• The abnormal cells can form

tumors and interfere with the
functioning of the lung, which
provides oxygen to the body via
the blood.
PNEUMONIA
• An infectious disease involving
inflammation and fluid buildup in the
lungs
• A variety of organisms, including

bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause
pneumonia.
• You may experience chest pain when

you breathe or cough, fatigue and loss
of appetite and shortness of breath

Gas Exchange

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GAS

• The uptake of molecular oxygen

• Delivery of oxygen from the lungs

• Elimination of carbon dioxide

• Respiration depends on diffusion of

• Gases enter and leave the internal

• Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through diffusion.

• Blood that is low in oxygen concentration and high in carbon dioxide

• Part of an animal’s body where gases

• Covered with thin, moist epithelial cells

• Partial Pressures for each gas in the atmosphere can be computed

Example: The partial pressure of oxygen is 160 mm Hg.

• As an animal grows, the surface area increases at a lesser

• Animals must have a body design that keeps internal cells

VENTILATION OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE

•medium enters the chamber at

•with unidirectional ventilation, the

• moves the gill covers(operculum) for water

• respiratory pigments of vertebrates

• found in muscles of vertebrates and

• Photosynthesis is the process where light

Dim sunlight –A plant consumes all the oxygen

Bright sunlight – Photosynthesis uses carbon

• The rate of respiration is slow in plants

• Diffusion is the only process through

• Oxygen is produced during

• Stomata are tiny openings or pores

• Specialized cells known as guard

• Stomata allow a plant to take in

• The stomata opens when turgor

• When the guard cells lose turgor,

• In higher plants or woody plants,

• These cells are loosely placed and

• Roots of the plant take oxygen from

• Oxygen diffuses in root hair and

• The mangrove mud is rather anaerobic

• Specialized root that grows upwards out

• Pneumatophores allow gaseous

•Refers to the general body surface or skin used by animals with

•Amphibians also use their skin in addition to lungs as gas exchange

•Some invertebrates that live in aquatic or damp environments have

•Gases diffuse across the skin

•Some animals, such as

environment and the

•Snails and slugs that spend

TRACHEAL SYSTEM Body surface

•Insects and spiders with a

spiracles (no respiratory

•They end with a moist, thin

Fig. 39-7, p. 685

• Spiracles are holes all over an

• Gas exchange occurs over thin

• Air enters the body through a

• Vertebrates such as salamanders are

Example: Larval Salamander

•In fish, respiration takes place in

• water flows over the gills

• highly efficient in extracting