SILVER

AMALGAM
 HISTORY
 Dental amalgam is a metal like restorative material
composed of a mixture of silver , tin or copper alloy and
mercury.
 Amalgam was introduced inn the United States in the 1830’s.
 Initially dentist mixed silver coins with mercury creating a
mass which was placed in the defected tooth .
 Amalgam has been the primary direct restorative material
for more than 150 year in the United States.
 Traditional or conventional amalgam alloys were produced
by early manufacturers in 1990 .
 Composition being :
65% Silver ,30% Tin ,5% Copper ,& less than 1% Zinc .
 CLASSIFICATION
1. According to particle shape :
a. Spherical :
Small round alloy particles that is mixed with mercury.
Because of the shape of the particle the material is condensed
into the tooth preparation with little condensation pressure.
b. Lathe-cut (irregular):
This tends to resist condensation better than spherical powder.
It contains more mercury than spherical powder.
c. Admixed :
It contains irregularly shaped & sized alloy particles sometimes
even spherical shaped .
2. According to particle size :
a. Regular cut.
b. Fine cut.
c. Micro fine cut.
3. According to copper contents :
a. Low copper alloy (Cu less than 6%)
b. High copper alloy (Cu more than 6%)
4. According to zinc content :
a. Zinc alloy.
b. Non-zinc alloy.
 MANUFACTURE OF ALLOY POWDER

1. Irregularly shaped particles (produced by

milling or lathe-cutting a cast ingot of
amalgam alloy)
2. Spherical particles (produced by atomizing
the liquid alloy in a chamber filled with inert
gas)
3. Mixture of both lathe-cut and spherical
particles
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
LATHE CUT AND SPHERICAL ALLOY

Lathe Cut Spherical

1. Particles are irregular 1. Particles are spherical

2. Manufactured by milling an 2. Manufactured by atomization of

annealed ingot of alloy molten alloy.

3. More Mercury required hence 3. Less Mercury hence has better

has inferioir properties properties
 COMPOSITION

1. Silver
2. Tin
3. Copper
4. Zinc
5. Mercury
6. Platinum
7. Palladium
 The functions of each component
is:
1.Silver :
-whitens the alloy,
-increases strength of amalgam(due to Ag-Sn phase)
-increases expansion of amalgam(due to Ag-Hg phase which has high volume)
-decreases flow of amalgam
-decreases setting time
-resists tarnish and corrosion.

2. Tin :
-reduces expansion of amalgam( Sn-Hg phase causes contraction)
-reduces strength and hardness
-increases flow
-greater affinity for Hg helps in amalgamation.
3.Copper :
-increases hardness and strength
-increases setting expansion
-decreases flow

4. Zinc :
-acts as deoxidizer and scavenger
-causes delayed expansion in amalgam, if mix is contaminated with
moisture during trituration and condensation
-makes alloy less brittle and contributes to workability of amalgam.
5. Mercury :
-In some brands a small amount of mercury (upto 3%)
is added to alloy, they are known as pre-
amalgamated alloys. Pre-amalgamated alloys
produces a more rapid reaction.

6. Platinum :
-Hardens the alloy and increases resistance to
corrosion.

7. Palladium :
-Hardens and whitens the alloy
 LOW COPPER ALLOYS
Composition:
Constituent Silver Tin Copper Zinc
(Ag) (Sn) (Cu) (Zn)

Percent 63-70% 26- 29% 2- 5% 0- 2%

 Available as

 Lathe cut alloys, which are further available as

coarse or fine grain(fine grain is preferred,
because of ease of carving).
 Spherical alloys
 Blend of lathe-cut and spherical particles.
 Setting reaction

 When alloy powder and mercury are triturated,

the silver and tin in the outer portion of the
particles dissolve into the mercury.
 At the same time the mercury diffuses into the
alloy particles and starts reacting with the silver
and tin within forming crystals of silver-mercury
(Ag2Hg3) and tin- mercury compounds (Sn8Hg).
 Amalgam reaction phases and
symbols
Phases Symbol Chemically

Gamma ϒ Ag3Sn
Beta β AgSn
Gamma 1 ϒ1 Sn8Hg3
Gamma 2 ϒ Sn8Hg
Eta ɳ Cu6Sn5
Epsilon ε Cu3S
 Simplified reaction

 Ag3Sn + Hg →Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg + Ag3Sn

 The alloy particles do not react completely with
the mercury.
 About 27% of the Ag3Sn remains as unreacted
particles (the gamma phase).
 The properties of each of the hardened amalgam
depends upon the proportion of each reaction
phase.
 If more unconsumed Ag3Sn is present, the
stronger the amalgam.
 The gamma 2 phase (Sn8Hg) is the weakest
component and is least stable to corrosion
process .
 HIGH COPPER ALLOY
 The overall composition is:
 Silver-69%
 Tin-17%
 Copper-13%
 Zinc -1%
 Compared with traditional low copper amalgam, high copper
amalgam have become the materials of choice because of
 Improved mechanical property
 Corrosion characteristics
 Better marginal integrity
 Improved performance in clinical trials.
There are two different types of high copper alloy powders-
1. Admixed alloy powder
2. Single composition alloy powder.
 Admixed alloy powder
-The admixed alloy powder was developed in 1963 by Innes and
Youdelis.
-They are made by mixing 1 part silver copper eutectic alloy with 2
parts silver tin alloy .
(an eutectic alloy is one in which the components exhibit complete
liquid solubility)
-In eutectic silver copper alloy ;Composition of silver -71.1% and
copper-28.1%.
 Amalgam made from admixed powder is stronger than amalgam
made from low copper powder .
 The strength is more due to silver copper particles which act as
fillers in amalgam matrix.
Typical admix high copper showing the lathe-cut
silver tin particles and the silver copper spheres.
 Setting reaction

 It has two stages;

1. Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg + Ag3Sn
unreacted + Ag-Cu unreacted
2. Sn6Hg + Ag-Cu Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3

“ In this reaction ,Sn8Hg has been eliminated and is replaced by

Cu6Sn5. To accomplish this, it is necessary to have net copper
content of at least 12% in alloy powder. ”
Thus it is also known as a non-gamma2 alloy.
 Microstructure of set amalgam

 The Cu6Sn5 is present as a ‘halo’ surrounding the

Ag-Cu particles. Final set material consists of :
Core:
-unreacted Ag3Sn and
-unreacted Ag-Cu surrounded by a halo of Cu6Sn5.
Matrix :
-Ag2Hg3.
 SINGLE COMPOSITION ALLOY
All the particles of this alloy has the same composition
hence it is called as single composition alloy
• Composition

Silver (Ag) - 60 to 65 %

Tin (Sn) - 15 to 25 %

Copper(Cu) - 13 to 30 %

Zinc (Zn) - 0 to 2 %

Mercury (Hg)
 SETTING REACTION

[Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn] +Hg Ag2Hg + Cu6Sn5 + unreacted

[Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn]

γ + ε + Hg γ1 + η + unreacted [γ + ε]
 MICROSCOPIC FEATURE
Two kinds of crystals are seen
1 . Polyhedral crystal
2 . Rod crystals of Cu6Sn5

Mesh of η crystal formed on unconsumed particles of

η rods are seen embedded in a γ1 crystal

Meshed η crystals on unconsumed alloy particles may

strengthen bonding between alloy particles and γ1
grains

η crystals dispersed between γ1 grains may interlock

γ1 grains
 PROPERTIES OF SET AMALGAM
STRENGTH
Compressive strength :
 The compressive strength of high copper single composition
at 1hr is 262 MPa which is less than half of its value after
7days which is 510MPa.
 6-8hrs after restoration no excessive masticatory forces to
use.
 Low copper has least compressive strength at 7days and 1hr.
 More the compressive strength in 1hr less possibility of
fracture of amalgam restoration.
 At least a compressive strength of 80MPa should be attained
in the first hour.
 Tensile strength

 Low copper alloy has 48MPa & high copper

alloy has 70MPa.
 High copper alloy tends to be stiffer than low
copper alloy.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
TRITURATION:
 Depends on amalgam type, trituration time, speed of
amalgamator.
 Undertrituration and overtrituration not good.
 Greater trituration energy leads to evenly distributed
matrix.
 Trituration not to be continued after matrix formation.
 MERCURY CONTENT:
– Mercury is used to wet the alloy powder. The coat of mercury on
alloy particles gives strength to the mix.
– Over mercury leads to lower mercury –alloy ratio. Mercury content
more than 53-55% , leads to drop of compressive strength.
– Less mercury leads to granulation of mix.

EFFECT OF CONDENSATION:
– Lathe cut alloy need more condensation pressure.
– Spherical alloy needs low condensation pressure.

EFFECT OF POROSITY:
– It decreases the tensile strength.
– Pores lead to cracks, corrosion, fatigue failure.
– Porosity could occur due to various reasons.
– Condensation alters the amount of voids.
 Dimensional changes
 STAGE 1 - CONTRACTION:
Initial contraction occurs in first 20mins.
Contraction is no greater than 45µm.
 STAGE 2 - EXPANSION:
oThis expansion of particles happens only if liquid mercury is present,
for plastic matrix formation.
oAfter matrix has dried no more expansion occurs. Instead these
crystals grow.
oIt is more for low copper but on contrary modern amalgams show
more contraction.
Reason:
oConventional amalgam had higher mercury:alloy ratio than high
copper alloy.
oHand trituration was done previously, now amalgamators are used.
 MOISTURE CONTAMINATION:

Changes must occur in 24hrs due to

various reasons.
In zinc –containing low/ high copper
contamination is called delayed or
secondary expansion.
Occurs in next 3-5days of the insertion,
goes to 400um(4%).
Hydrogen release leads to pressure on
the particles leading to expansion.
Zn+H2O ZnO+H2
 MICROLEAKAGE
Reasons for microleakage
 Improper case selection
 Improper cavity preparation
 Improper manipulation of amalgam
 Improper isolation and matricing
 Lack of adequate condensation
Leads to:
 Secondary caries formation due to food lodgment.
 CREEP
 Creep is defined as a time-dependent
plastic deformation.
 Creep of dental amalgam is a slow
progressive permanent deformation
of set amalgam, which occurs under
constant stress (static creep) or
intermittent stress (dynamic creep).
 Creep values:-
Low Copper Amalgam: 0.8-8%
High Copper Amalgam: 0.4-0.1%
 RETENTION
 Amalgam does not adhere to the tooth
structure.
 Rather retention of the amalgam filling is
obtained through mechanical locking. This is
achieved by proper cavity design.
 Additional retention if needed can be obtained
by placing pins within the cavity.
 TARNISH & CORROSION
 Amalgam often tarnish and corrode
in the oral environment.
 Corrosion occurs in the interface
between tooth and restoration.
 Corrosion products : Oxides &
chlorides of Sn.
 Higher the Hg:Alloy ratio corrosion.
 Smooth and homogenous surface
minimizes tarnish and corrosion.
 CLINICAL MANIPULATION .
 The clinical success of amalgam restorations is highly
dependent on the correct cavity design and selection and
manipulation of the alloy.
 Selection of material should be based on clinical
performance; lacking such information ,it should be based on
the physical and mechanical properties.
 Alloy should meet the requirements of ADA’s specification
no. 1 or ISO 1599.
 Use of alloy and techniques that are technique insensitive
relative to the manipulation and placement of amalgam will
enhance the quality and durability of the restoration.
 CAVITY DESIGN.
 Providing retention:
i. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure, hence proper
design of cavity is very important.
ii. The amalgam cavity is designed to provide maximum mechanical
locking of amalgam.
iii. This can be achieved by creating a cavity with walls that diverge
towards the floor of the cavity or converge towards the mouth
of cavity.
iv. This results in cavity that is narrower , effectively locking the
amalgam within the cavity.
v. Additional retention can be obtained by placing pins within the
cavity.
 Four wall support:
i. For effective condensation, the cavity should have four walls
and a floor. If one or more wall is absent , a stainless steel
matrix can compensate for missing walls.
ii. Failure to have a four wall support can result inadequate
condensation which can weaken the amalgam.
 Preventing tensile fracture:
i. Since amalgam has poor tensile strength , the cavity should
have sufficient depth and width in order to provide
sufficient bulk to the amalgam , especially in areas of high
stress.
 Cavosurface angle:
i. The junction of the cavity with the external surface should
be as close to a right angles as possible . Beveling is not
indicated for amalgam as it can cause fracture of the
amalgam at the margins.
 MANIPULATION OF
DENTAL AMALGAM.

1. Selection of material.
2. Proportioning and dispensing.
3. Mercury:Alloy Ratio.
4. Trituration.
5. Mulling.
6. Condensation.
7. Carving and Finishing.
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
1. ALLOY
• The alloy is selected based on the clinical need:
 For Class 1 & Class 2 restorations ,an amalgam of high
resistance to marginal fracture is desirable.
 If strength is needed quickly ,high copper alloys are
preferred. However they require a fast operator.
 Non-Zinc alloy is selected in cases where it is difficult to
control moisture.
 Indium is selected as it performs the same function as zinc
does. Also it reduce the ϒ2 phase.
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
2. MERCURY
 There is only one requisite for dental mercury
and that is its purity.
 Defects in purity of mercury can lead to:
 Pulpal damage due to the contamination of
mercury by elements such as arsenic.
 Physical properties are also affected.
 A highly pure mercury is also known as “triple
distilled.”
 DISPENSERS
 Dental amalgam dispensers
were developed earlier by
the manufacturers.
 Disadvantages:
 Dispensing by volume was
unreliable as it was not
pre-proportioned.
 Trapping of air and voids
regarding the degree of
packing in the dispenser
 PREPORTIONED CAPSULES
 Proportioned capsules
containing alloy and
mercury.
 Capsule consists of two
compartments separated
by a membrane .
 Before use the membrane
is ruptured by compressing
the capsule.
 PREPORTIONED CAPSULES
Advantages Disadvantages
 Consistent proportioning  Mercury and alloy may
 Physical handling not leak.
required thus reducing  Only one alloy/mercury
health hazard. ratio for all situations.
 Low mercury/alloy ratio.  Dental amalgam capsules
are expensive.
 MERCURY/ALLOY RATIO
 Historically, smooth and plastic amalgam mixes were
achieved by using an amount of mercury
considerably in excess of that desirable in final
restoration.
 Due to deleterious effect of excessive mercury on
physical and mechanical properties of amalgam, the
amount of mercury wad reduced to an acceptable
level.
 Now, the most obvious method for restoration is to
reduce the original mercury/alloy ration
 Present day alloys are designed for manipulation with
reduced mercury/alloy ratios.
 This method is known as minimal mercury technique or
the Eames technique.
 Sufficient amount of mercury must be present in the
original mix to provide a coherent and plastic mass after
trituration.
 The mercury content of the finished restoration should be
comparable to that of original ratio, usually at 50wt% with
lesser amounts(~42wt%) being used with spherical alloys.
 TRITURATION
• Objectives of tritutration
• Methods of tritutration
 WHAT IS TRITUTRATION?

It is the production of homogeneous material by

Mixing component materials thoroughly.
It is process used to purify crude Chemical compounds
containing soluble impurities.
 OBJECTIVES OF
TRITUTRATION
1. To achieve a workable mass of amalgam Within a
Minimum time, leaving a Sufficient time for its
insertion into a cavity preparation and carving
the tooth anatomy.
2. To remove oxides from the powder particle
surface, facilitating the direct contact between
the Particles and the mercury.
3. To reduce the particles size.
 METHODS

 Mortar and pestle

 Mechanical tritutration
 MORTAR AND PESTLE

• It is the oldest method used.

• Suggested by dr. Marcus. L. Ward.
• Here pestle is held in the pen grasp and rapid
convenient Circular motion is used until a shiny
homogeneous mass is obtained.
• Need 60-120s for tritutration.
 MECHANICAL TRITUTRATION
• A large number of commercial brand of amalgamator are available.
• A capsule Serves as mortar. A cylindrical metal Or plastic piston of
Smaller diameter than the capsule is Inserted into the capsule
which serves as the Pestle.
• The alloy and mercury are dispensed into the capsule and It is
secured in the machine.
• The arms holding the capsule oscillate At high speed thus
accomplishing tritutration .
• Reusable capsules are available with a Friction fit and screw cap lids.
• They should be clean and free of previously mixed, hardened
alloy .
• Scraping out of the hardened alloy produces Scratches which
Compounds the sticking problems in the future.
 ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL
TRITUTRATION

• Tritutration is achieved rapidly.(20-25s)

• More standard mix Can be Obtained.
 MULLING

Definition- Improve homogeneity of mass and get

a single consistent mix.
➢ The mix is first squeezed to minimize the
mercury content. Usually done by twisting the
mixed amalgam mass in a piece of gauze.
➢Mulling is to redistribute mercury
evenly within the mixed, squeezed
mass.
➢Usually done by rubbing the
amalgam mass in rubber fingers.
 CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process of compacting the
amalgam into the prepared cavity. It is placed in
the cavity after trituration, and placed using
suitable instruments.
Aims:
i. To adapt it to the cavity wall.
ii. Compacts the amalgam and thus reducing voids.
iii. Remove excess mercury.
 Proper condensation increases the strength and
decreases the creep of the amalgam.
 Condensation must always be done within the four
walls and floor.
 If one or more walls of the cavity are missing, a
steel matrix may be used to compensate for it.
Condensation can be done manually or mechanically.

A] Manual Condensation
 The mixed materials is packed in increments. Each increment is
carried to the prepared cavity by means of a small forceps or an
amalgam carrier.
 Once inserted, it should be condensed immediately with
sufficient pressure. Condensation is started at the center, and the
condenser point is stepped sequentially towards the cavity walls.
 As the mix is condensed some mercury rich material rises to the
surface. Some of this can be removed, to reduce the final
mercury content and improve the mechanical properties. The
remaining will assist bonding with the next increment.
 Long delay between mixing and condensation, results in weaker
amalgam and increased mercury content and creep.
B] Mechanical Condensation

 The procedures and principles of mechanical

condensation are the same as those for hand
condensation, including the need to use small increments
of amalgam.
 Mechanical condensers are used, which provide rapid
vibration or impact type of force to pack the amalgam mix.
 Less effort is needed than hand condensation.
 SHAPING AND FINISHING

Carving
 After amalgam has been condensed into prepared cavity, it is
carved to reproduce the tooth anatomy.
 Carving shouldn't be started until the amalgam is hard
enough to offer resistance to carving instrument. A scraping
or ringing sound should be heard when it is carved.
 Shaped carvers are used with stokes proceeding from tooth
surface to amalgam surface.
Burnishing
 After carving, restoration is smoothened by burnishing
surface and margins by ball burnisher.
 It is done using light strokes proceeding from amalgam
surface to tooth surface.
 Heat generation should be avoided during burnishing ; as
above 60 degrees, mercury is released causing corrosion and
fracture at margins.
Polishing
 Polishing minimizes corrosion and prevents adherence of
plaque.
 Polishing should be delayed for at least 24 hrs after
condensation.
 Wet abrasive powder in a paste form is used as dry polishing
powder can raise temperature and cause release of mercury.
Class 1, mandibular 1st molar
 AMALGAM BONDING
 Amalgam restorations do not reinforce the teeth.
 Teeth with MOD cavities are susceptible to cuspal
fracture.
 Bonding of amalgam with suitable adhesive like 4-
META shows considerable improvement in fracture
resistance.
 Amalgam bonding reduces marginal leakage.
 However, amalgam to amalgam bond is not effective
and therefore repair with bonding agents is not
recommended.
 Mercury Toxicity

 Mercury is a toxic substance and its hazard can

arise during trituration, condensation, and
finishing of the restoration.
 The primary risk of it is through inhalation,
though it might also get absorbed by the skin.
 The following precautions should be taken while
working with it :-
 clinic- well ventilated.
 Proper disposal of in well sealed containers.
 Amalgam scrap contaminated with mercury should not be
subjected to heat sterilization.
 Mercury suppressant powders are helpful but they are
temporary measures.
 Skin contaminated with mercury should be washed with
soap and water.
 Use of ultrasonic amalgam condenser is not recommended
as a spray of small mercury droplets is observed
surrounding condenser point during condensation.
 ADVANTAGES
 Easy manipulation & minimal technique sensitivity.
 Excellent compressive strength & wear resistance.
 Proven long track record.
 Self sealing ability-unique property of amalgam.
 Anatomical form is well maintained.
 Economical-cheaper than cast gold & other
permanent restorative materials.
 DISADVANTAGES
 Poor esthetics
 Extensive tooth preparation needed due to its poor
edge strength.
 Low tensile strength.
 Base is necessary under amalgam restorations, since
it’s a good conductor of electricity.
 Its susceptible to galvanic action & corrosion
 Eventually show marginal breakdown.
 Mechanical retention is necessary since it doesn’t
bond to tooth structure.
 Discoloration of tooth structure.