Basic equipments in Distribution

System
 Basic equipments in
Distribution System

• Switchgear and circuit breakers

• Fuses
• Current and Voltage Transformers
• Lightning Arrestors
Switchgear and circuit breakers
• One of the most important device used in power system.

• Primary function is to protect the system ensuring continuity of

supply.
• Voltage rating of circuit breaker is normally from 1.05 to 1.10
times more than normal operating voltage.

• Basic requirements of circuit breaker are:

– The breaker must be capable of :

 continuously carrying rated system current at the point of
installation.
 Breaking the circuit under abnormal condition
– Operation of circuit breaker must not affect or damage other
equipment present in the system.

• Term Switchgear is used for the entire assembly consisting of

circuit breaker and control apparatus.
Switchgear and circuit breakers
• Location:
– used for protection of generators, transformers
and sub stations.
– In sub station switchgear is located on both, high
voltage as well as low voltage sides.

• Types of switchgear based on housing:

• Indoor type:
– Used for voltages upto 33 kv and when large
currents are not involved.
• Outdoor type:
– Used for higher voltages and current ratings.
– Designed to withstand rain ,wind etc.
– Physical dimensions are larger than indoor.
Switchgear and circuit breakers
• Types of switchgear based on type of circuit
breaker used:
– Air breaks circuit breaker ( used up to 12 KV ) miniature circuit
breaker ( up to 600V) where air at atmospheric pressure is
used.
– Oil circuit breaker ( bulk oil or tank type) (used for 306 KV to
12KV), where dielectric oil is used.
– Minimum oil circuit breaker ( for 3.6 to 245 kV) where
dielectric oil is used.
– Air blast circuit breaker ( used for 245 to 1100 KV), where
compressed air gas is used.
– Gas SF6 circuit breaker ( for 36 to 420 kV) where SF6 gas is
used.
– Vacuum circuit breaker (up to 36 KV), where vacuums is
used.
 Fuses
• Rated current (In): Is the maximum current that the fuse can
continuously pass without interruption to the circuit, or harmful
effects on its surrounding.

• I2t value: Is a measure of the energy required to blow the fuse

element. It is an indication of let through energy passed by the fuse
which downstream circuit elements must withstand before fuse
opens the circuit.

• Breaking Capacity: Is the maximum current that can be safely be

interrupted by the fuse. Some fuses are designated High Rupture
Capacity (HRC )and are usually filled with sand or a similar material.

• Voltage Rating: Voltage rating of a fuse should be grater than or

equal to the circuit voltage.
• Low voltage fuses can generally be used at any voltage upto their rating.
• Some medium voltage and high voltage fuses used will not function properly
at lower voltages.
 Fuses
• Is a current interrupting device

• Protects the circuit by creating open circuit condition in response to

excessive current.

• Normally used up to 600 V installations.

• High voltage high power fuses are standalone protective switching
devices used to 115 kV.
• "High-power fuse" means that these fuses can interrupt several
kiloamperes. Some manufacturers have tested their fuses for up to
63 kA cut-off current

• High voltage fuses used to protect instrument transformers used for

electricity metering or for small power transformers.

• Parameters of Fuses:
– Rated current (In)
– I2t value
– Breaking capacity
– Voltage rating
Types of Fuses:
• Open or link fuses: a piece of fuse wire connected between two terminals.
Replacement of fuse is easy.

• Enclosed fuses: Fuse element is enclosed in a tube of insulating material such

as glass, fiber or mica.
– Tube is filled with a material, usually powdered form which absorbs the heat and
liberated gases when a fuse is blown.
– Types of such fuses are:
1. Liquid filled fuses
2. Sand and boric acid fuses
3. Oil fuses

– Expulsion fuses: Fuse is so designed that expulsion of gases formed by

vaporizing of the fuse and the expansion of the surrounding is sufficient to blow
the arc.
– Large power fuses use fusible elements made of silver, copper or tin to provide
stable and predictable performance.
– High voltage expulsion fuses surround the fusible link with gas-evolving
substances, such as boric acid.
– When the fuse blows, heat from the arc causes the boric acid to evolve large
volumes of gases.
– The associated high pressure (often greater than 100 atmospheres) and cooling
gases rapidly quench the resulting arc.
– The hot gases are then explosively expelled out of the end(s) of the fuse. Such
fuses can only be used outdoors.
 Fuses
• One advantage of fuses is that they are cheap
and can be purchased from any hardware
store, but they have the drawback of needing
to be replaced once they stop an overload.
That can be challenging in a darkened room.

• Alternatively, circuit breakers can simply be

reset with a flip of a switch after an overload.
However, the technology can be more
expensive than a fuse box.
 Current and Voltage Transformers
• Are “ Eyes and Ears” of the protective
system.

• Two main functions of CT and PT are:

• To electrically isolate the protective relays
from the high voltage power system to ensure
safety of operating personnel.

• To step down the current and voltage to

standard values so that design of relay can be
standardized irrespective of the actual primary
voltage and current.
Specification of Voltage Transformers

• Rated primary voltage

• Is the nominal system voltage,
• If transformers connected between a phase and
the ground or between the neutral and the
ground, the primary voltage will be considered as
1 / √3 times the nominal systems voltage (V)

• Rated secondary voltage

• This is generally 110 or 63.5 V for phase-to-phase
or phase-to-ground
 Instrument and protection CTs

• Current transformers are used to supply information

to the protective relays and/or
• current, power and energy metering “instruments”.

• For this purpose they must supply a secondary current

proportional to the primary current flowing through
them and must be adapted to network characteristics:
voltage, frequency and current.
 protection CTs
• A “protection” CT must saturate sufficiently high to
allow a relatively accurate measurement of the fault
current by the protection.

• Current transformers are thus expected to have an

Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF) that is usually fairly high.

• The associated “relay” must be able to withstand high

overcurrents.
 Instrument CTs

• An “instrument” CT requires good accuracy around

the nominal current value.

• The metering instruments do not need to withstand

currents as high as the protection relays.
 Characterisation of CTs
• An example of a protection CT:
• Rated primary current: 200 A,
• Rated secondary current: 5 A.

• Its accuracy load: Pn = 15 VA

• Its accuracy limit factor is ALF = 10
• For I = ALF. In, its accuracy is 5% (5P),
 Lightning Arrestor
• Also known as surge arrestor.

• Normally connected between phase and ground at the

substation to protect substation equipments from
lightning and switching surge.

• Surge arrester offer low resistance to the high voltage

surge for diverting to the ground.

• After discharging the surge energy to ground , it blocks the

normal current flowing to ground by offering high
resistance path.
Connections of different devices
 Protections - Mandatory
RELAY PURPOSE
1 Over current Alternator protection against current
overloading. provides protection against
short circuit/inter turn faults.
2 Earth fault Alternator protection against stator earth fault

3 Restricted earth fault Alternator protection against earth fault within

protection zone
4 Back up earth fault Alternator protection against through earth
faults
5 Differential relay Alternator protection against inter-phase,
phase to earth fault within alternator
6 Reverse power relay DG protection against motoring due to power
flow from bus to machine
7 Field failure / under Alternator protection against induction
reactance motoring due to failure of excitation
8 Over voltage Alternator protection against insulation failure due
to over voltage
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Definition
code Function
12 Overspeed Detection of rotating machine overspeed
14 Underspeed Detection of rotating machine underspeed
21 Distance protection Impedance measurement detection
21B Underimpedance Back up phase to phase short circuit
protection for generators
24 Flux control Overfluxing check
25 Synchro-check Check before paralleling two parts of power
system
26 Thermostat Protection against overload
27 Undervoltage Protection for control of voltage sags

27D Positive sequence Protection of motor against operation with

Undervoltage insufficient voltage
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Function Definition
code
27R Remanent Check on disappearance of voltage sustained
Undervoltage by rotating machines after the power supply is
disconnected
27 TN Third harmonic Detection of stator winding insulation earth
overvoltage faults
32P Directional active Protection against active overpower transfer
overpower
32Q Directional reactive Protection against reactive overpower transfer
overpower
37 Phase undercurrent Protection against undercurrent
37P Directional active Protection against active underpower transfer
underpower
37Q Directional reactive Protection against reactive underpower transfe
undrpower
38 Bearing Temp. Protection against overheating of rotating
monitoring machine bearing
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Function Definition
code
40 Field loss Protection of synchronous machine against
faults or field loss
46 Negative Protection against unbalanced phase
sequence/unbalance current
47 Negative sequence Negative sequence voltage protection &
overvoltage detection of reverse rotation of rotating
machines

48-51LR Excessive starting time Protection of motor against starting with

locked rotor overloads or reduced voltage. & for loads that
can block
49 Thermal overload Protection against overload
49T RTDs Protection against overheating of winding
machines
50 Instantaneous phase 3- ph. Protection against short circuit
overcurrent
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Function Definition
code
50BF Breaker failure Checking and protection if CB fails to trip after a
tripping order
50N Instantaneous earth Protection against earthfault
or fault 50N: residual current calculated or measured by 3 CTs
50G 50G: residual current measured directly by a single
sensor (CBCT)
50V Instantaneous voltage 3-ph. Protection against short circuits with voltage-
restrained phase dependent threshold
overcurrent
50/27 Inadvertent generator Detection of Inadvertent generator energization
energization
51 Delayed phase 3-ph. Protection against overload and short circuits
overcurrent
51N Delayed earth fault Protection against earthfault
or 51N: residual current calculated or measured by 3 CTs
51G 51G: residual current measured directly by a single
sensor (CBCT)
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Function Definition
code
51V Delayed voltage restrained 3- ph. Protection against short circuit
phase overcurrent With voltage dependent threshold
59 Overvoltage Protection against excessive voltage or
sufficient voltage detection
59N Neutral voltage displacement Insulation fault protection
63 Pressure Detection of transformer internal faults ( gas.
Pressure)
64RE Restricted earth fault Earth fault protection for star connected 3-ph.
F differential Winding with earthed neutral
66 Successive starts Protection function that monitors the number
of motor starts
67 Directional phase overcurrent 3-ph. Short circuit protection according to
current flow direction
67N/6 Directional earth fault Earth fault protection depending on current
7NC flow direction
(NC: Neutral compensated)
 Protective relay number and their functions
ANSI Name of Function Definition
code
78 Vector shift Vector shift disconnection protection

78PS Pole slip Detection of loss of synchronization of synchronous

machine
79 Recloser Automated device that recloses the CB after
transient line fault tripping
81H overfrequency Protection against abnormally high frequency
81L underfrequency Protection against abnormally under frequency
81R Rate of change of Protection for fast disconnection of two parts of the
frequency power system
87B Busbar differential 3-ph. Protection against bus bar internal faults
87G Generator differential 3-ph. Protection against internal faults in AC
generators
87L line differential 3-ph. Protection against line internal faults
87M Motor differential 3-ph. Protection against internal faults in motor
87T Transformer differential 3-ph. Protection against internal faults in
transformer
Discrimination and Coordination
• When two or more protective equipments provide
protection for same circuit there should be co-
ordination and discrimination between them.

• Discriminate faulty and healthy part of power

system.

• Concern with correct operation of correct device.

• So co-ordination between fuse and other equipment

should be such that only necessary device operates
and other remaining unaffected.
Discrimination and Coordination
• Protection of radial lines:
• Consider fuse A and B connected as shown
Fault
A B

Major Minor
fuse F1 fuse F2

• When fault occurs beyond B , fuse b should operate and A should

remain unaffected.
• This is called discrimination.

• In this case, for proper discrimination, the prearking time of

major fuse A must be greater than the total operating time of
minor fuse B.

• Manufacturer gives the table for selection of major and minor

fuse based on test performance.
 Relay coordination
 Fault clearing
Circuit breaker open & re-close operation

Fault inception

Closed

Circuit Open
Breaker

Ready
Reclaim time Reclaim time
Trip

Re-close
 Relay coordination

 Relay coordination schemes

Time graded protection scheme

Operating quantity (Fault current/voltage) graded

protection scheme

Combination of above
 Relay coordination
 Time graded protection scheme
Coordination of fault clearing time

Downstream breaker having least time i.e. trip at first

Upstream breaker having long clearing time i.e. trip at last

T4 > T3 > T2 > T1

Generating
Fault Clearing

station
Main
time

T4
distribution
switchgear
T3
Power Control
Centre - PCC
T2

T1
Load end
- MCC
Protection
 Relay coordination
 Operating quantity graded protection scheme
Co-ordination of relay operating quantity

Downstream breaker having least setting i.e. trip at first

Upstream breaker having higher setting i.e. trip at last

I>4 > I>3 > I>2 > I>1

Generating
Fault Current

station
Main
I>4
distribution
switchgear
I>3
Power Control
Centre - PCC
I>2

I>1
Load end
- MCC
Protection
Zone
Switchboard
• Is a device that directs electricity from one source to another.

• Is an assembly of panels, each of which contains switches that

allow electricity to be redirected.

• The operator is protected from electric shock by safety

switches and fuses.

• There can also be controls for the supply of electricity to the

switchboard, coming from a generator or bank of electrical
generators, especially frequency control of AC power and load
sharing controls.

• The amount of power going into a switchboard must always

equal to the power going out to the loads.
 Switchboard
• Inside the switchboard there is a bank of busbars - generally wide strips of
copper to which the switchgear is connected.

• These act to allow the flow of large currents through the switchboard, and are
generally bare and supported by insulators.
 Motor control center (MCC)
• Is an assembly of one or more enclosed sections having a
common power bus and principally containing motor control
units.

• Motor controllers may include only the means for starting and
stopping the motor or they may include other functions a
factory assembly of several motor starters.

• Can be manually, remotely or automatically operated.

• Can include variable frequency drives, programmable

controllers, and metering and may also be the electrical
service entrance for the building.

• Installed in a separate air-conditioned room, but often an

MCC will be on the factory floor adjacent to the machinery
controlled.
SLD
Example
1. Study the following single line diagram carefully and answer the
following questions:
Data DF = 0.6, L.F. = 0.8

i. capacity of distribution transformer is …?… KVA. Specify ratings

of all meters and instrument transformers.

ii. Will you prefer to use some other protective devise for outgoing
feeder for Mixing Mill?
Which one and why? If not why not?

2. i. For the above SLD what is the size of reactive power

compensation required to improve PF to 0.95 (lag) ?

ii. For which outgoing feeder in above SLD, will you recommend
direct KVAr compensation and how much?
OR
ii. List out all protective relays shown in SLD.
 From Single line diagram
Type of Load (KW) Load (KW) P.F. Efficiency
Process plant MCC-1 800 0.8 0.9
Process plant MCC-2 1000 0.8 0.9
Fire Fighting MCC 475 0.8 0.9
Utilities MCC 500 0.8 0.9
Mixing mill 150 0.8 0.9
Main Lighting 1440 0.6 --
P. F. correction -- -- --
Future 1 -- -- --
Future 2 -- -- --
 Total KVA Rating of Transformer
(Equation)
• For all loads O/P KW and Efficiency is given .
• So find I/P KW

O/P KW
η=
I/P KW
O/P KW
So, I/P KW =
η
I/P KW
PF cos =
I/P KVA
I/P KW O/P KW
So, I/P KVA = =
cos η × cos
Significance of L.F and D.F
• Given L.F. = 0.8 and D.F. = 0.6

• considering L.F. as given KW load is equipment rated load

but the observed load is less than the rated so multiplying
rated load with L.F gives actual observed load.
• So, Actual load = Rated load X L.F.
• Also, maximum demand for all the loads does not occur at
the same time so considering Diversity factor.

• Diversity factor reduces the KVA rating of the

transformer.
Total KVA Rating of Transformer
(Equation)
• So KVA Rating of transformer becomes:

I/P KW  L.F.  D. F.
KVA Rating of Transformer =
cos
O/P KW  L.F.  D. F.
=
η × cos
• Total KVA Rating of transformer is sum of KVA Rating of transformer for
each individual load.

• capacity of distribution transformer is selected as 20 % of total KVA

required, considering the future expansion.
 Total KVA Rating of Transformer

• So total KVA Rating of distribution

transformer
= (sum of KVA rating required

for individual load)

X 1.2
Total KVA Rating of Transformer
O/P KW
KVA for plant MCC1 =
η × cos
800

0.9  0.8
= 1111.11

1000
KVA for plant MCC2 
0.9  0.8
= 1388.88

475
KVA for fire fighting MCC 
0.9  0.8
= 659.72
Total KVA Rating of Transformer
500
KVA for utilities MCC 
0.9  0.8
= 694.44

150
KVA for mixing mill 
0.9  0.8
= 208.3

1440
KVA for main lighting(1 ) 
1 0.6  3
= 800
 Total KVA Rating of Transformer
 KVA = 1111.11+1388.88+659.72+694.44+208.3+800
= 4862.45
KVA of Transformer with D.F. = 4862.45  0.6  0.8  2333.99

considering future expansion, transformer capacity is

selected 20% more the required KVA

S0, KVA of Transformer = 2333.99 1.2

= 2333.99  20%more
= 2800 KVA

S0, KVA of Transformer = 2800KVA /  /Y /ONAN /33KV / 0.415 KV

Ratings of all meters and Instrument
transformers
Distribution Transformer VA= 3VI
VA 2800
Primary Current I PL =   48.98A
3Vp 3  33
CT ratio on High Voltage side is 100:5
PT ratio on High Voltage side is =33KV :110V
Vss rating on High Voltage side is = 110  20%V

VA 2800
Secondary Current Is=   3895.37A
3Vs 3  0.415
CT ratio on Low Voltage side is 5000:5
PT ratio on Low Voltage side is 0.415KV :110V
Vss rating on Low Voltage side is 110  20%V
 Ratings of all meters and
Instrument transformers
• Pf meter with null deflection

1 1
• Frequency meter range = 0 – 60 Hz lead lag

• KW meter = Total KW + 20 % extra

• = 4365 * 1.2
• = 5238 KW

• KW meter = (0 – 5500) KW

• KVA meter = (0- 4000) KVA

Ratings of all meters and Instrument
transformers
• KVAR meter:
KVAR= KW  tan
 KVAR  [800  tan  cos 1
0.8  ]  [1000  tan  cos 1
0.8  ]
+[475×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]+[500×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]
+[150×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]+[1440×tan  cos -1 0.6  ]
= 4113.75
• KVAR meter = Total KVAR+ 20 % extra
• = 4113.75 * 1.2
• = 4936.5
• KVAR meter = (0 –5000) KVAR
• KWAH meter is a counter and can be analog or digital.
Will you prefer to use some other protective
devise for outgoing feeder for Mixing Mill?

• Mixing mill is the lowest among all feeders.

• It has protections like

– MCB
– HRC fuse and isolator at MCC centre.

• So, no further protection is needed.

size of reactive power compensation required
to improve PF to 0.95 (lag)
KVAR= KW  tan
 KVAR  [800  tan  cos 1
0.8  ]  [1000  tan  cos 1
0.8  ]
+[475×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]+[500×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]
+[150×tan  cos -1 0.8  ]+[1440×tan  cos -1 0.6  ]
= 4113.75
 KW= 800  1000  475  500  150  1440
= 4365
 KVAR 
1 1 4113.75
 = tan    tan  43.3
 KW  4365
COS  0.7277
 P. F. Improvement Equation
• power triangle OAB is for PF cosФ1
• power triangle OAC is for PF cosФ2
• Active power OA does not change with
power factor improvement.
• Lagging KVAR of load is reduced by
PF correction equipment , thus improving
PF to cosФ2

Leading KVAR supplied by PF correction equipment

= BC = AB - AC
= KVAR  KVAR
1 2
= OA (tanФ  tanФ )
1 2
= KW (tanФ  tanФ )
• Knowing leading 1 2
KVAR supplied by the PF
correction equipment desired PF can be
obtained.
size of reactive power compensation required
to improve PF to 0.95 (lag)

PF1 =0.7  Φ 1 = cos 0.7 = 43.3

-1

PF2 =0.95  Φ 2 = cos -1 0.95 = 18.19

Compensating KVAR = KW  tanΦ1 -tanΦ 2 
= 4365  tan43.3-tan18.19
=2679.07 KVAR

• Size of reactive power compensation required to

improve PF to 0.95 (lag) = 2679.07kvar
size of reactive power compensation required
to improve PF to 0.95 (lag)

• For main lighting PF is very low 0.6 so

compensation can be used for this load to
improve PF to 0.95.

PF1 =0.6  Φ 1 = cos -1 0.6 = 53.03

PF2 =0.95  Φ 2 = cos -1 0.95 = 18.19
Compensating KVAR = KW  tanΦ1 -tanΦ 2 
= 1440  tan53.03-tan18.19
=1439.8 KVAR
For which outgoing feeder in above SLD, will
you recommend direct KVAr compensation
and
• Plant 2 can be how much?
provided with a local KVAR
compensation as it is a maximum capacity load.

• Local KVAR compensation required is:

PF1 = 0.8  Φ 1 = cos -1 0.8 = 36.86

PF2 =0.95  Φ 2 = cos -1 0.95 = 18.19
Compensating KVAR = KW  tanΦ1 - tanΦ 2 
= 1000  tan 36.86 - tan18.19
=421.14 KVAR
List out all protective relays shown in SLD.
• Input Line:
– Lighting Arrestors
– 52: over current circuit breaker drawn out type
– 51: Delayed phase over current

• Up to busbar:
– 52: over current circuit breaker drawn out type
– 51: Delayed phase over current
– 51N: Delayed earth fault
– 27:Undervoltage relay

• From busbar to MCC:

– Plant 2 : Circuit Breaker
– Plant 3,4,5 : switch-Fuse unit
– Plant 6 : ACB, fuse, Isolator
– Remaining load 8,9,10 : Switch–Fuse unit