The Five Basic Styles of

Communication

1. Assertive (positive)
2. Aggressive (negative)
3. Passive – Aggressive (negative)
4. Submissive (negative)
5. Manipulative (negative)
A manipulative communicator is always shrewd,
calculating and scheming at all times. You are very skilled
at controlling or influencing other people to do things for
you without considering their needs or priorities. Often,
you might hide whatever you are speaking and people will
not be aware of what you are talking about.
When you are being submissive, your main goal is pleasing
everyone around you trying to avoid any conflicts. Basically, you put
the needs of other people above yours, assuming they have more to
contribute and more rights. Therefore, you ignore yourself and fail
to prioritize yourself when you are trying to please other people.

Here, you might appear very passive on the outside but you are
actually hiding your anger on the inside. If you are passive aggressive,
you might feel resentful, powerless and often express your feelings
with very subtle means trying to undermine the person you are
talking to. Eventually, you might end up sabotaging yourself
altogether.
An aggressive person often thinks about winning without thinking
about the other people around him or her. Basically, you behave as if
your needs are more important than those of other people. You also
imagine you have more to contribute to everything than other people.
It is quite ineffective to communicate aggressively because most
people react to the message and forget about the content altogether.

It is considered the most effective and healthiest style of

communication. If you are communicating assertively, you have high
self-esteem and confidence to say whatever you are feeling without
being too passive or aggressive. Basically, you understand your limits
and you will not allow anyone to push you around.
“HIGH-CONTEXT” cultures rely heavily on
nonverbal communication, using elements such
as the closeness of their relationships, strict CONTEXT refers to
social hierarchies and deep cultural knowledge the information that
to convey meaning. surrounds an event
and is tied up with
In contrast, “LOW-CONTEXT” cultures depend that event’s
largely on words themselves. Communication ultimate meaning,
tends to be more direct, relationships tend to according to Shoji
begin and end quickly, and hierarchies are more Nishimura, Anne
relaxed. It is important to note that no culture is Nevgi and Seppo
“better” than another; communication styles Tella.
simply convey differences, rather than
superiority.
 • Communication tends to be indirect, harmoniously structured and
understated.
• In conversation, people are expected to speak one after another in an
orderly, linear fashion.
High Context

• Disagreements are personally threatening. It is important to solve

conflict immediately or avoid it completely in order for work to
continue.
• Physical space is considered more communal. Standing very close to
others is a common practice.
• Verbal messages are indirect. Speakers often talk around a point
(instead of directly to it) and use embellishments to convey meaning.
• Accuracy is valued. How well something is learned is important.
• Some countries considered “high context” include Japan, Greece and
various Arab nations.
 • Communication tends to be linear, dramatic, precise and open.
• Because words are so highly valued, they are used almost
constantly.
Low Context

• Disagreements are depersonalized. Conflicts do not have to be

resolved immediately for work to continue. When solutions are
found, they tend to be rationally based.
• Privacy and personal space are highly valued. Physical space is
considered privately owned.
• Verbal messages are explicit and direct. Words are valued above
their context.
• Speed is valued. How efficiently something is done is important.
• Some countries considered “low context” include the United
States, Germany and various Scandinavian countries.
Hofstede’s Cultural
Dimensions
 Power Distance
This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a
society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally: beliefs about the
appropriate distribution of power in society. The fundamental issue here is how
a society handles inequalities among people. People in societies exhibiting a
large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody
has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low
Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and
demand justification for inequalities of power. China and Saudi Arabia are
countries with a high Power Distance index.
Individualism

The Individualism/Collectivism dimension is about the relative importance of

individual versus group interests. The high side of this dimension, called
individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social
framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves
and their immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference
for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their
relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in
whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.” The USA is
considered as one of the most individualistic countries in the world.
 Masculinity
The Masculinity/Femininity dimension is about what values are considered
more important in a society. The Masculine side of this dimension
represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness
and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its
opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty,
caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-
oriented. In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is
sometimes also related to as “tough versus tender” cultures. Japan is
considered to be a very masculine country, whereas Scandinavian
countries such as Norway and Sweden are considered highly feminine.
The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the
members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
In addition its impact on rule making is taken into account. The
fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the
future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let
it happen? Countries exhibiting a high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain
rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox
behaviour and ideas. These countries often need many rules to constrain
uncertainty. Countries with a low Uncertainty Avoidance index maintain a
more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles,
tolerance for ambiguity is accepted and the need for rules to constrain
uncertainty is minimal. South American countries such as Chile, Peru and
Argentina are highly uncertainty avoiding countries. Uncertainty
Avoidance
Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while
dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies
prioritize these two existential goals differently. Countries that score
low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-
honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with
suspicion. They are past and present oriented and value traditions
and social obligations. Countries with cultures that scores high on
this dimension on the other hand take a more pragmatic approach:
they are future oriented and encourage thrift and efforts in modern
education as a way to prepare for the future. Asian countries such as
China and Japan are known for their long term orientation. Morocco
is a short term oriented country. Time Orientation
 Indulgence

The Indulgence dimension is a relatively new dimension to the model. This

dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their
desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively weak
control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint.
Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained. Indulgence
stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and
natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands
for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means
of strict social norms.
 Face-saving

Face-saving involves doing or saying things (or not saying things) in order to avoid
them being embarrassed or otherwise losing social status. Ways to save face
include:
1. Not bringing up their failings with them.
2. Making excuses for them that explain their failures or give good reason for
seemingly-unreasonable things they have done.
3. Not revealing to others information you have about the person that would cause
other people to think less of them.
4. Taking actions to correct their failures without revealing to others that you have
done this.
5. Taking the blame yourself for things they have done wrong.
Face-saving can be passive or active. Passive face-
saving has the 'do no harm' philosophy and means
that you avoid doing or saying things which would
embarrass the other person. Active face saving is
where you go out of your way to help and rescue
them, for example by taking the blame for things
that are not your fault.
Social status, as indicated by the esteem of others, appears as a deep
need in most people and many hence deeply fear 'losing face.' Helping
them sustain this position when they might otherwise be embarrassed
shows care that builds both trust and obligation.\

Face-saving is important for many, but is particularly important in

cultures where personal status is the primary means of trusting
relationships, in contrast to where there is wide social trust and
supportive legislation. In such cultures face-saving is both ritualized and
mandatory, as to embarrass another person is to insult them and
challenge them to conflict.
When loss of face is important, having somebody else save face,
especially if they are harmed or lose face in the process, is to be much
appreciated and deserves significant help in return.
Communication techniques
Possible Misinterpretations (3.4)
1. Understatement ("I have one small suggestion.")
A person from a direct culture will think the speaker does not have a
strong opinion on the matter.
A person from an indirect culture will think the speaker is very
interested or concerned.
2. Changing the subject.
A direct communicator may think the speaker has nothing more to
say on the present topic or has lost his or her train of thought The
direct communicator might bring the conversation bask to this topic
if he or she hasn't finished talking about it, thus upsetting the
speaker, who is uncomfortable talking about the subject
An indirect communicator may think the speaker is uncomfortable
with the topic under discussion and be reluctant to refer to it again.
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2. If I belong to a different culture (direct), I am more likely to interpret the subject changing as just a
move to a new thing. If so, I will overlook the negative feeling of that person (indirect culture) while
discussing with others. That is to say, I lose the opportunity to improve the skill to chair the meeting.
4. In an indirect culture, saying nothing to a suggestion may imply some disagreement or even
severe comments. If this is not taken, people will take wrong further action.

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3. Saying yes.
A direct communicator will assume the speaker has understood,
agreed, approved, accepted whatever is being discussed.
An indirect communicator will assume that yes is simply a polite
acknowledgment and look or probe for the real response from the
other person.
4. Saying nothing in response to a proposal or suggestion.
A direct communicator assumes the speaker will say something if he
or she has a problem with or does not agree with or like the
proposal; hence, silence means approval.
An indirect communicator assumes silence means the speaker
has some objection to the proposal and will pursue the matter
with that person in the appropriate setting.

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5. Telling a story that seems to be off the subject.
A direct communicator will assume the speaker has gone off on a
tangent or lost his or her train of thought The direct person will wait for
the speaker to finish and get back to the subject, not paying much
attention to the story and perhaps missing an important point that is
being made indirectly.
Since this is not a technique used by direct communicators, there is no
chance of misinterpretation here for an indirect communicator.
Direct communicators do tell stories on occasion, of course, and when
they do, indirect communicators should be careful not to read anything
into such stories, for they are usually told for their own sake and not as a
way of commenting indirectly on something else.

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6. Asking a question about or returning to a point previously
agreed upon.
The direct communicator will think the speaker has forgotten what was
said and will simply repeat the gist of the original discussion, when, in
fact, the speaker may be trying to reopen the topic in order to get
another resolution or decision.
The indirect communicator will think the speaker wants to REOPEN
the discussion when, in fact, the speaker has simply forgotten the
original resolution and wants to be reminded of it or reconfirm it.

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7. Asking what you think in response to your asking for an
opinion or making a proposal.

A direct communicator will assume the speaker wants to know your

own opinion on what you have just proposed or suggested and will give
it, thus missing the point, which is that the speaker is not especially
taken with the suggestion but doesn't want to come right out and
say so.

An indirect communicator will assume the speaker doesn't think

much of the suggestion and may withdraw or amend it when, in
fact, the speaker is simply asking for your opinion.

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8. Informing a superior about something that is going on.

Direct communicators may interpret this as a request for a solution or

some kind of assistance and offer help where none is needed or
wanted by the speaker.
Indirect communicators might interpret such a conversation as a
routine update, a common courtesy toward bosses who like to know
everything that's going on—and fail to offer help that was, in fact,
being requested by the speaker.
9. Qualified answers: Probably, I think so, I'm almost sure,
There's a good possibility.
Direct communicators interpret these literally as affirmations, when
often they are, in fact, polite ways of saying the opposite of what the
words mean.
Indirect communicators hearing these words would take them as
polite "nos" when, in fact, they may be meant literally, as near
affirmations. 26
10. Not mentioning something in a conversation (the
significance of what is not said).
Direct communicators would read nothing into the failure of a certain
topic to come up, assuming there was nothing to be said about it.

Indirect communicators might mistakenly read a message into the

speaker's failure to bring up a certain topic.

11. Embedded answer: answering an earlier question in a

subsequent part of a conversation.
Direct communicators would normally make no connection between
an earlier question and a delayed or buried answer.
Direct communicators would never use such a technique, so there
would be no chance for misinterpretation on the part of an indirect
communicator.

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 Switching Styles
1. I'm not sure that's such a good idea. Do you think that's a good idea?
Are there any other ideas? I like most
parts of that idea.
2. That's not exactly the point.
3. I think we should...
4. What do you think, Mr. Cato?
6. That's not the way to do that.
7. I don't agree.

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 For Indirect Communicators
For the purposes of this activity, imagine
the setting to be a meeting in a culture
(or with people) where maintaining
harmony and saving face are very
important.
1. That is a very interesting viewpoint.
2. This proposal deserves further consideration.
3. Your idea might work.
4. We understand your proposal very well.
5. We will try our best.
6. I heard another story about that project (situation,
report, etc.).
7. Can we move on to the next topic?

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