Mechanical Properties of Metals: Strain

Mechanical Properties
of Metals
500
CONTINUED
400
Stress (MPa)
300
200
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Mechanical Properties
• Stiffness - Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus (MPa)
• Strength - Yield, Ultimate, Fracture, Proof, Offset Yield.
Measured as stress (MPa)
• Ductility - Measure of ability to deform plastically without
fracture - Elongation, Area Reduction, Fracture Strain - (no units
or mm/mm)
• Toughness, Resilience - Measure of ability to absorb energy
(J/m3).
• Hardness - Resistance to indentation/abrasion (Various scales,
e.g.; Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers.)
Stress and Strain
• In a simplistic sense, stress may be thought of
as Load/Area.
• Similarly, strain is the deformation of the
component/original length.
• A stress may be direct, shear, or torsional -
leading to corresponding deformations.
• Stress cannot be measured directly, but
deformation can be.
Direct Stress Examples
Load, P Engineering Stress Load, P
L/2
P L/2
S
Lo Area
Ao
Ao
Lo Area
L Ao
e
L/2
Lo L/2
P
Engineering Strain
P
Direct Stress - Tension Direct Stress - Compression

Tension Test
Measures P
Extensometer
Measures L
Typical Universal
Testing Machine
Modern Materials Testing System
Hydraulic
Wedge
Grips
Specimen
Extensometer
ASTM Tension Test Specimen
Ao=0.20 in2
0.505" Dia
2” Gauge Length
Lo
Raw Data Obtained
Total
Uniform Elongation
Deformation
Load, P (kN)
Maximum
Load, Pmax
Elastic
Load, Pf
Deformation
Elongation, L (mm)
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Elongation
Sy
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
0.2% offset
yield stress
E (Ultimate)
Su
E
Proportional Limit
Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)

Duke’s Quick Tip!
• Express Load in Newtons (N) and Area in mm2 to
get Stress in MPa.
N
2  MPa
mm
• Mechanical properties of metals are almost
always given in MPa or ksi.
• Imperial units: Load in kips (1000 lbf) & Area as
in2 gives Stress in ksi (kips/in2)
• 1000 psi = 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
Hooke’s Law
Elastic Deformation
• Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when the
load is removed, the part returns to its original shape and
dimensions.
• For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some
materials, including metals such as cast iron, polymers, and
concrete, the elastic region is non-linear.
• If the behavior is linear elastic, or nearly linear-elastic,
Hooke’s Law may be applied:
S  Ee
• Where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity - Stiffness
500
Stre ss (M Pa )
CONTINUED
400
300
200 S (300  0)MPa

E   2x10 5 MPa
e (0.015  0.0)
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Atomic Origin of Stiffness
dF 
E   
 dr ro
Net Interatomic Force
Strongly Bonded
Weakly Bonded
Interatomic Distance
Shear Stress and Strain
Shear Shear Stress,
Strain,
Shear Stress
G
Shear Strain
shear stress,  = Shear Load / Area

shear strain,  = angle of deformation (radians)
shear modulus, G =  /(elastic region)
Elastic Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s ratio: When a metal is strained in
one direction, there are corresponding strains
in all other directions.
• For a uniaxial tension strain, the lateral strains are
constrictive.
• Conversely, for a uniaxial compressive strain, the
lateral strains are expansive.
• i.e.; the lateral strains are opposite in sign to the
axial strain.
• The ratio of lateral to axial strains is known as
Poisson’s ratio, .
Poisson’s Ratio,
ex ey
  
ez ez
For most metals,
0.25 < < 0.35
in the elastic range
Furthermore:
E  2G(1   )
Plastic Deformation
Elastic Plastic Elastic Plastic
Elastic Plastic
Sy
Sy
Sy
Stress
0.002 0.002 Strain 0.002
Most Metals - Al, Cu Clad Al-Alloys Low carbon Steel

Microstructural Origins of Plasticity
• Slip, Climb and Slide of atoms in the crystal structure.
• Slip and Climb occur at Dislocations and Slide occurs
at Grain Boundaries.

Elastic and Plastic Strain
P (e,S) e  ee  e p
S
ee 
E
Stress
e p  e  ee
Total Strain
The 0.2% offset yield stress

Strain is the stress that gives a plastic
Plastic (permanent) strain of 0.002.
Elastic
ep ee
Elastic Recovery
Loading Loading
Reloading
Stress
Unloading
Unloading
Strain Strain
elastic strain
Ductility - EL% & AR%
• Elongation
L f  Lo
EL%  x 100
Lo Lo
Lf
• Area Reduction
Ao  A f Ao Af
AR%  x 100
Ao
Ductile Vs Brittle Materials
• Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
• Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
• Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
AX X
C
Engineering Stress
B
X
D X
Brittle Ductile
A&B C&D
Engineering Strain
Toughness & Resilience
• Toughness: A measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy without fracture.
(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
• Resilience: A measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy without plastic or
permanent deformation.
(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
• Note: Both are determined as
energy/unit volume
Toughness, Ut
Su
Sy
X
ef
Ut   S de
o
(S y  Su ) EL%
  
2  100 

Resilience, Ur
Sy Su
ey X
Ur   S de
o
Sy e y

E 2
Sy 2

2E
ey
Typical Mechanical Properties
Metals in annealed (soft) condition
Material Yield Stress Ultimate Ductility Elastic Modulus Poisson’s

(MPa) Stress (MPa) EL% (MPa) Ratio
1040 Steel 350 520 30 207000 0.30
1080 Steel 380 615 25 207000 0.30
2024 Al Alloy 100 200 18 72000 0.33
316 Stainless Steel 210 550 60 195000 0.30
70/30 Brass 75 300 70 110000 0.35
6-4 Ti Alloy 942 1000 14 107000 0.36
AZ80 Mg Alloy 285 340 11 45000 0.29

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Mechanical Properties

Direct Stress - Tension Direct Stress - Compression

Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)

200 S (300  0)MPa

shear stress,  = Shear Load / Area

0.002 0.002 Strain 0.002

Most Metals - Al, Cu Clad Al-Alloys Low carbon Steel

The 0.2% offset yield stress

Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)

Material Yield Stress Ultimate Ductility Elastic Modulus Poisson’s

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