Introduction to Graphs (Part-I - III)

Srikrishnan Divakaran
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Ahmedabad University
Lecture Set 11
 9.1: What are Graphs? Not
• Everyday Math:
• A plot or chart of numerical data using a
coordinate system.
• Discrete mathematics:
A particular class of discrete structures (to
be defined) that is useful for representing
relations and has a convenient webby-
looking graphical representation.
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 What is a graph?
A set of points and lines joining these
points.
Formally:
e6
G=(V,E), V-vertices, E-edges
v1

v3
v4
V2 and v3 are
e1 adjacent. e2 is incident
e2 e3 with v2.
e5
v2
v5
e4

3
 Types of Graphs:
1. Simple Graphs

Visual Representation
• A simple graph G=(V,E) of a Simple Graph
consists of:
– a set V of vertices or nodes
– a set E of edges / arcs / links: unordered pairs
of [distinct?] elements u,v  V

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 2. Multigraphs

• Like simple graphs, but there may be more

than one edge connecting two given nodes.
• A multigraph G=(V, E, f ) consists of a set V
of vertices, a set E of edges (as primitive
objects), and a function
Parallel
f:E{{u,v}|u,vV  uv}. edges
• E.g., nodes are cities, edges
are segments of major highways.
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 3. Pseudographs
• Like a multigraph, but edges connecting a
node to itself are allowed.
• A pseudograph G=(V, E, f ) where
f:E{{u,v}|u,vV}. Edge eE is a loop if
f(e)={u,u}={u}.
• E.g., nodes are campsites
in a state park, edges are
hiking trails through the woods.

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 Directed Graphs
• Correspond to arbitrary binary relations R,
which need not be symmetric.
• A directed graph (V,E) consists of a set of
vertices V and a binary relation E on V.
• E.g.: V = people,
E={(x,y) | x loves y}

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Directed Multigraphs

• Like directed graphs, but there may be

more than one arc from a node to
another.
• A directed multigraph G=(V, E, f )
consists of a set V of vertices, a set E of
edges, and a function f:EVV.
• E.g., V=web pages,
E=hyperlinks. The WWW is
a directed multigraph...
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 Types of Graphs: Summary
• Summary of the book’s definitions.
• Keep in mind this terminology is not fully
standardized...
Edge Multiple Self-
Term type edges ok? loops ok?
Simple graph Undir. No No
Multigraph Undir. Yes No
Pseudograph Undir. Yes Yes
Directed graph Directed No Yes
Directed multigraph Directed Yes Yes

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 Graphs as models
• Networks: transportation, roadmaps, computer,
electrical, etc.

10
Graphs as models

11
 Matching Problem
women men
w1 m1

w2 m2

w3 m3

w4 m4

w5 m5

12
Matching Problem
women men

w1 m1

w2 m2

w3 m3

w4 m4

w5 m5

Is this a maximum matching?

13
Assignment Problem
workers machines

w1 1 m1
3
1
w2 2 m2
1.5
2
w3 2 m3

1.7 4
w4 m4
3
2
w5 m5

Find a minimum (maximum) cost

assignment of workers to machines 14
Stable Marriage Problem
women men

w1 1 m1
1
1 Does there exist a
w2 2 m2 stable marriage?
1.5
2
w3 2 m3

1.7 4
w4 m4
3
2
w5 m5

W2 prefers m5 to her spouse and m5 15

prefers w2 to his spouse.
 Timetabling problems
• m teachers, n classes.
T1 C1
• Teacher i is required to
teach class j for Pij periods. T2 C2
• In a given period a teacher
can be in at most 1 class, C3
and a class can have at
most 1 teacher.
• Design a timetable with
minimum no. of periods. Cn

• Tractable! Tm

16
 Connector problem
• Design a railway network
connecting a number of
cities, with a minimum
possible construction cost.
• Or electrical network,
cable TV, gas, etc.

17
 Chinese Postman Problem
• A postman begins in P.O.

the post office, has to

traverse all the
streets, and returns to
the post office in a
shortest possible
distance.

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 Chinese Postman Problem
• A postman begins in P.O.

the post office, has to

traverse all the
streets, and returns to
the post office in a
shortest possible
distance.
• Tractable!

19
 Chinese Postman Problem-
graph theory
• Definition: an Euler tour P.O.

is a closed walk that

traverses all the edges in
the graph.
• Problem: Does a graph
have an Euler tour?
• Easy problem…
• Problem: Find a
minimum Chinese
Postman Tour.
• Tractable… 20
Travelling salesman problem
Delhi

Intractabl
e!
Mumbai Hyderabad

Bangalore Chennai

Madurai

A salesperson begins in Bangalore, has to visit all the

cities, and return to Bangalore in a shortest possible
distance. (or time, or cost) 21
 Vehicle Routing
• Need to transport n children to m
bus stops across the city.
• There are k buses, each bus j has
capacity cj. Each km has a cost.
(time).
• Problem: Route the buses s.t. the
total cost (or time) is minimized.
• Difficult – intractable problem!

22
 9.2: Graph Terminology
• Adjacent, connects, endpoints, degree,
initial, terminal, in-degree, out-degree,
complete, cycles, wheels, n-cubes,
bipartite, subgraph, union.

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 9.2: Graph Terminology
• Adjacent, connects, endpoints, degree,
initial, terminal, in-degree, out-degree,
complete, cycles, wheels, n-cubes,
bipartite, subgraph, union.

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 Adjacency
Let G be an undirected graph with edge set
E. Let eE be (or map to) the pair {u,v}.
Then we say:
• u, v are adjacent / neighbors / connected.
• Edge e is incident with vertices u and v.
• Edge e connects u and v.
• Vertices u and v are endpoints of edge e.

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 Degree of a Vertex
• Let G be an undirected graph, vV a
vertex.
• The degree of v, deg(v), is its number of
incident edges. (Except that any self-loops
are counted twice.)
• A vertex with degree 0 is isolated.
• A vertex of degree 1 is pendant.

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 Handshaking Theorem
• Let G be an undirected (simple, multi-, or
pseudo-) graph with vertex set V and edge
set E. Then

 deg(v)  2 E
vV
• Corollary: Any undirected graph has an
even number of vertices of odd degree.

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 • deg(a) = 6
• deg(b) = 4
• deg( c) = 1 pendant
• deg(d) = 0 isolated
• deg(e) = 3
• deg(f) = 4
• deg(g) = 2
• ∑deg(v) = 20 = 2∑edges=2 x 10
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 Directed Adjacency
• Let G be a directed (possibly multi-) graph,
and let e be an edge of G that is (or maps
to) (u,v). Then we say:
– u is adjacent to v, v is adjacent from u
– e comes from u, e goes to v.
– e connects u to v, e goes from u to v
– the initial vertex of e is u
– the terminal vertex of e is v

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 Directed Degree
• Let G be a directed graph, v a vertex of G.
– The in-degree of v, deg(v), is the number of
edges going to v.
– The out-degree of v, deg(v), is the number of
edges coming from v.
– The degree of v, deg(v)deg(v)+deg(v), is
the sum of v’s in-degree and out-degree.

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Directed Handshaking Theorem
• Let G be a directed (possibly multi-) graph
with vertex set V and edge set E. Then:

1

vV
deg (v)   deg (v)   deg(v)  E


vV


2 vV
• Note that the degree of a node is
unchanged by whether we consider its
edges to be directed or undirected.

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 • deg+(a) = 3 deg -(a) = 3
• deg+(b) = 3 deg -(b) = 1
• deg+( c) = 0 deg -(c) = 1
• deg+(d) = 0 deg -(d) = 0
• deg+(e) = 1 deg-(e) = 2
• deg+(f) = 2 deg-(f) = 2
• deg+(g) = 1 deg-(g) = 1
• ∑deg+(v) = ∑deg-(v) =1/2 ∑deg(v)= ∑edges
= 10
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 Special Graph Structures
Special cases of undirected graph structures:
• Complete graphs Kn
• Cycles Cn
• Wheels Wn
• n-Cubes Qn
• Bipartite graphs
• Complete bipartite graphs Km,n

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 Complete Graphs
• For any nN, a complete graph on n
vertices, Kn, is a simple graph with n
nodes in which every node is adjacent to
every other node: u,vV: uv{u,v}E.

K1 K2 K3 K4
K5 K6
n `
n(n  1)
Note that Kn has i  edges.
i 1 2
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 Cycles
• For any n3, a cycle on n vertices, Cn, is a
simple graph where V={v1,v2,… ,vn} and
E={{v1,v2},{v2,v3},…,{vn1,vn},{vn,v1}}.

C3 C4 C5 C6
C7 C8

How many edges are there in Cn?

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 Wheels

• For any n3, a wheel Wn, is a simple

graph obtained by taking the cycle Cn
and adding one extra vertex vhub and n
extra edges {{vhub,v1}, {vhub,v2},…,
{vhub,vn}}.

W3 W4 W5 W6
W7 W8

How many edges are there in Wn?

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 n-cubes (hypercubes)
• For any nN, the hypercube Qn is a simple
graph consisting of two copies of Qn-1
connected together at corresponding
nodes. Q0 has 1 node.

Q0
Q1 Q2 Q4
Q3

Number of vertices: 2n. Number of edges:Exercise to try!

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Bi-partite Graphs
Complete Bi-partite Graphs
 Subgraphs
• A subgraph of a graph G=(V,E) is a graph
H=(W,F) where WV and FE.

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 Induced Sub-graphs

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 9.3: Graph Representations
• Graph representations:
– Adjacency lists.
– Adjacency matrices.
– Incidence matrices.

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 Adjacency Lists
• A table with 1 row per vertex, listing its
adjacent vertices.
Adjacent
a b Vertex Vertices
a b, c
c d
e b a, c, e, f
f c a, b, f
d
e b
f c, b

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 Directed Adjacency Lists
• 1 row per node, listing the terminal nodes
of each edge incident from that node.

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 Adjacency Matrices
• Matrix A=[aij], where aij is 1 if {vi, vj} is an
edge of G, 0 otherwise.

a b a b c d e
c
a 0 1 1 0 0
e
d b 1 0 1 0 1
c 1 1 0 0 0
d 0 0 0 0 0
e 
0 1 0 0 0


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Isomorphic Graphs
Are these graphs isomorphic ?
 Paths in Undirected Graphs

• In an undirected graph, a path of length

n from u to v is a sequence of adjacent
edges going from vertex u to vertex v.
• A path is a circuit if u=v.
• A path traverses the vertices along it.
• A path is simple if it contains no edge
more than once.

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 Paths in Directed Graphs

• Same as in undirected graphs, but the

path must go in the direction of the
arrows.

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 Connectedness in Undirected Graphs

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 Cut Vertices in Graphs
Sometimes the removal from a graph of a vertex and all incident edges produces a
subgraph with more connected components. Such vertices are called cut vertices (or
articulation points). Graphs without any cut vertices are called non-separable graphs.
 Vertex Connectivity in Undirected
Graphs
Vertex connectivity is the minimum number of vertices that you need to remove to
disconnect a graph. Edge connectivity is the minimum number of edges you need to
remove to disconnect a graph.
 Edge Connectivity in Graphs
Sometimes the removal from a graph a set of edges disconnects the graph (creates two or
more components), such edges are called called cut edges.
 Edge Connectivity in Undirected
Graphs
Edge connectivity is the minimum number of edges that you need to remove to disconnect
a graph. Edge connectivity is the minimum number of edges you need to remove to
disconnect a graph.
 Relationship between edge and vertex
connectivity

Vertex connectivty <= Edge connectivity <= minimum degree of a vertex.

 Connectedness in Directed Graphs

A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from a to b and from b to a

whenever a and b are vertices in the graph.

A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path between every two

vertices in the underlying undirected graph.

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 Graph Isomorphism – Revisited

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Graph isomorphism Revisited
Euler Circuit
Euler Circuits and Paths
Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Graph Traversals

from -> to, weight

 Traversing Graphs
• Breadth-first search and depth-first search
– are two traversal strategies that provide an efficient way to “visit”
each vertex and edge edge exactly once.
• Breadth-first search: Strategy (for digraph)
– choose a starting vertex, distance d = 0
– vertices are visited in order of increasing distance from the
starting vertex,
– examine all edges leading from vertices (at distance d) to
adjacent vertices (at distance d+1)
– then, examine all edges leading from vertices at distance d+1 to
distance d+2, and so on,
– until no new vertex is discovered
 Breath-first search, e.g.
• e.g. Start from vertex A, at d = 0
– visit B, C, F; at d = 1
– visit D; at d = 2
• e.g. Start from vertex E, at d = 0
– visit G; at d = 1
 Depth-first search for Digraph
• Depth-first search: Strategy (for digraph)
– choose a starting vertex, distance d = 0
– vertices are visited in order of increasing distance from the
starting vertex,
– examine One edges leading from vertices (at distance d) to
adjacent vertices (at distance d+1)
– then, examine One edges leading from vertices at distance d+1
to distance d+2, and so on,
– until no new vertex is discovered, or dead end
– then, backtrack one distance back up, and try other edges, and
so on
– until finally backtrack to starting vertex, with no more new vertex
to be discovered.
 Depth-first search for digraph

and so on…
 Finding Strongly Connected
Components
• Strongly connected:
– A directed graph is strongly connected if and only if, for each pair of
vertices v and w, there is a path from v to w.

• Strongly connected component:

– A strongly connected component of a digraph
G is a maximal strongly connected subgraph
of G.
Example: Depth-first search for digraph