The document discusses graph theory and provides definitions and examples of graph terminology such as vertices, edges, degrees, adjacency matrices, incidence matrices, and special graphs like complete graphs, cycles, and bipartite graphs.
The document discusses graph theory and provides definitions and examples of graph terminology such as vertices, edges, degrees, adjacency matrices, incidence matrices, and special graphs like complete graphs, cycles, and bipartite graphs.
The document discusses graph theory and provides definitions and examples of graph terminology such as vertices, edges, degrees, adjacency matrices, incidence matrices, and special graphs like complete graphs, cycles, and bipartite graphs.
The document discusses graph theory and provides definitions and examples of graph terminology such as vertices, edges, degrees, adjacency matrices, incidence matrices, and special graphs like complete graphs, cycles, and bipartite graphs.
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SMA 2203
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 5 Elementary Graph Theory Chapter Summary Introduction Applications of Graph Theory Graph models Directed Graphs Terminologies Special Graphs Connectivity Representing Graphs Isomorphism of Graphs Weighted Graphs Euler Paths, Circuits, Eulerian graph and Traversability Hamilton Paths and Circuits Shortest path problem Trees Introduction
3 4 5 6 Introduction to Graphs Definition:
A graph G = (V, E) consists of a nonempty set V of vertices (or nodes) and a set E of edges. Each edge has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.
Example:
This is a graph with four vertices and five edges. Applications of Graph Theory Graph theory has its applications in diverse fields of engineering ,
ElectricalEngineering − The concepts of graph theory is used extensively in designing circuit
connections.
Computer Science − Graph theory is used for the study of algorithms. For example, ◦ Kruskal's Algorithm ◦ Prim's Algorithm ◦ Dijkstra's Algorithm
Computer Network − The relationships among interconnected computers in the network follows the principles of graph theory.
Science − The molecular structure and chemical structure of a substance, the DNA structure of an organism, etc., are represented by graphs.
Linguistics − The parsing tree of a language and grammar of a language uses graphs.
General − Routes between the cities can be represented using graphs. Depicting hierarchical ordered information such as family tree can be used as a special type of graph called tree. Graph Models One of the most interesting and powerful features of graphs is that they can be used to model structures. ◦We can model relationships ◦Computer networks ◦Flight schedules ◦etc.
Ex: Graph Models: Social Networks
Graph Terminology
In a simple graph each edge connects two different vertices and no two edges connect the same pair of vertices.
Multigraphs may have multiple edges connecting the same two vertices. When m different edges connect the vertices u and v, we say that {u,v} is an edge of multiplicity m.
An edge that connects a vertex to itself is called a loop.
A pseudograph may include loops, as well as multiple edges
connecting the same pair of vertices. Directed Graphs Definition: An directed graph (or digraph) G = (V, E) consists of a nonempty set V of vertices (or nodes) and a set E of directed edges (or arcs). Each edge is associated with an ordered pair of vertices. The directed edge associated with the ordered pair (u,v) is said to start at u and end at v.
Remark: Graphs where the end points of an edge are not ordered are said to be undirected graphs. Graph Terminology (continued)
A simple directed graph has no loops and no multiple edges.
A directed multigraph may have multiple directed edges. When there are m directed edges from the vertex u to the vertex v, we say that (u,v) is an edge of multiplicity m. Graph Terminology: Summary Graph Terminology (continued) Definition:
Two vertices u and v in an undirected graph G are called adjacent (or
neighbors) in G if {u, v} is an edge in G. If e = {u, v}, the edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v. The edge
e is also said to connect u and v.
The vertices u and v are called endpoints of the edge {u, v}.
Definition:
The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges
incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex contributes twice to the degree of that vertex. In other words, you can determine the degree of a vertex in a displayed graph
by counting the lines that touch it.
The degree of the vertex v is denoted by deg(v). Graph Terminology (continued) A vertex of degree 0 is called isolated, since it is not adjacent to any vertex. Note: A vertex with a loop at it has at least degree 2 and, by definition, is not
isolated, even if it is not adjacent to any other vertex.
A vertex of degree 1 is called pendant. It is adjacent to exactly one other
vertex. Example: Which vertices in the following graph are isolated, which are
pendant, and what is the maximum degree? What type of graph is it?
Solution: Vertex f is isolated, and vertices a, d and j are pendant. The maximum degree is deg(g) = 5. This graph is a pseudograph (undirected, loops). Graph Terminology (continued)
The Handshaking Theorem:
Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with e edges. Then 2e = .
Example:
How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices, each of degree 6?
Solution:
The sum of the degrees of the vertices is 610 = 60. According to the Handshaking Theorem, it follows that 2e = 60, so there are 30 edges. Graph Terminology (continued)
Theorem: An undirected graph has an even number of vertices of odd
degree.
Proof:
Let and be the set of vertices of even and odd degrees, respectively (Thus = , and = V). Then by Handshaking theorem
2|E| = = +
Since both 2|E| and are even,
vV2 deg(v) must be even. Since deg(v) if odd for all , || must be even. Graph Terminology (continued) Definition:
When (u, v) is an edge of the graph G with directed edges, u is said to be
adjacent to v, and v is said to be adjacent from u. The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u, v), and v is called the terminal
vertex of (u, v).
The initial vertex and terminal vertex of a loop are the same.
Definition:
In a graph with directed edges, the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg-
(v), is the number of edges with v as their terminal vertex.
The out-degree of v, denoted by deg+(v), is the number of edges with v as
their initial vertex.
Question: How does adding a loop to a vertex change the in-degree and out-
degree of that vertex?
Answer: It increases both the in-degree and the out-degree by one. Graph Terminology (continued)
Example: What are the in-degrees and out-degrees of the vertices a, b, c, d
in this graph. Graph Terminology (continued)
Theorem:
Let G = (V, E) be a graph with directed edges. Then:
vV deg-(v) = vV deg+(v) = |E|
This is easy to see, because every new edge increases both the sum of in-degrees and the sum of out-degrees by one. Special Graphs Definition:
The complete graph on n vertices, denoted by Kn, is the simple graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct vertices. Special Graphs Definition:
The cycle Cn, n 3, consists of n vertices v1, v2, …, vn and edges {v1, v2}, {v2, v3}, …, {vn-1, vn}, {vn, v1}. Special Graphs Definition:
We obtain the wheel Wn when we add an additional vertex to the cycle Cn, for n 3, and connect this new vertex to each of the n vertices in C n by adding new edges. Special Graphs Definition:
A simple graph is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two disjoint nonempty sets V1 and V2 such that every edge in the graph connects a vertex in V1 with a vertex in V2 (so that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2).
For example, consider a graph that represents each person in a village by a
vertex and each marriage by an edge.
This graph is bipartite, because each edge connects a vertex in the subset of males with a vertex in the subset of females (if we think of traditional marriages). Special Graphs Example I: Is C6 bipartite?
Example II: Is C3 bipartite?
Special Graphs Definition:
The complete bipartite graph Km,n is the graph that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets of m and n vertices, respectively. Two vertices are connected if and only if they are in different subsets.
Let G = (V, E) be a simple graph with |V| = n. Suppose that the vertices of G are listed in arbitrary order as v1, v2, …, vn.
The adjacency matrix A (or AG) of G, with respect to this listing of the vertices, is the nn zero-one matrix with 1 as its (i, j)th entry when v i and vj are adjacent, and 0 otherwise. In other words, for an adjacency matrix A = [a ], ij
aij = 1 if {vi, vj} is an edge of G,
aij = 0 otherwise. Representing Graphs a Example: b What is the adjacency matrix AG for the following d graph G based on the order of vertices a, b, c, d ? c Solution: 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 AG 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
Note: Adjacency matrices of undirected graphs are always symmetric
Representing Graphs Definition:
Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with |V| = n. Suppose that the vertices and edges of G are listed in arbitrary order as v 1, v2, …, vn and e1, e2, …, em, respectively.
The incidence matrix of G with respect to this listing of the vertices and edges is the nm zero-one matrix with 1 as its (i, j)th entry when edge e j is incident with vi, and 0 otherwise.
In other words, for an incidence matrix M = [mij],
mij = 1 if edge ej is incident with vi mij = 0 otherwise. Representing Graphs a 1 Example: 2 b What is the incidence matrix M for the following d 3 graph G based on the order of vertices a, b, c, d 5 and edges 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6? 4 c
Note: Incidence matrices of directed graphs contain two 1s per column for edges connecting two vertices and one 1 per column for loops. Isomorphism of Graphs Definition:
The simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are isomorphic if there is a bijection (an one-to-one and onto function) f from V1 to V2 with the property that a and b are adjacent in G1 if and only if f(a) and f(b) are adjacent in G 2, for all a and b in V1. Such a function f is called an isomorphism.
Inother words, G1 and G2 are isomorphic if their vertices can be ordered in
such a way that the adjacency matrices MG1 and MG2 are identical. Isomorphism of Graphs Example I: Are the following two graphs isomorphic? a a
b e e b c d c d
Solution: Yes, they are isomorphic, because they can be arranged to look identical. You can see this if in the right graph you move vertex b to the left of the edge {a, c}. Then the isomorphism f from the left to the right graph is: f(a) = e, f(b) = a, f(c) = b, f(d) = c, f(e) = d. Isomorphism of Graphs Example II: How about these two graphs?
a a b e e b c c d d
Solution: No, they are not isomorphic, because they differ in the degrees of their vertices. Vertex d in right graph is of degree one, but there is no such vertex in the left graph. Connectivity Definition:
An undirected graph is called connected if there is a path between every pair of distinct vertices in the graph.
For example, any two computers in a network can communicate if and only if the graph of this network is connected.
Note: A graph consisting of only one vertex is always connected, because it
does not contain any pair of distinct vertices. Connectivity Example: Are the following graphs are connected? a b a b e e d d c c Yes. No.
b a a b d e e c d f c Yes. No. Weighted graphs Weighted graphs are useful in a number of branches of mathematics.
Givena path (or circuit) in a weighted graph, the length of the path is the sum of the weights of each of its edges.
Noticethat for any path, the path obtained by reversing the order of the edges has the same length as the original path. We shall therefore not distinguish between the two Euler Paths, Circuits, Eulerian graph and Traversability
Definition: Euler Paths, Circuits, Eulerian graph and Traversability.
A path that uses every edge of a graph once and only once is called an Euler path.
An Euler circuit is an Euler path that begins and ends at the same vertex.
A graph that has an Euler path (or circuit) is said to be traversable.
Example: Find some paths in the graph to the right. Try finding an Euler path.
Solution : Path ACEBhas length 3. Path ACEBDA is an Euler path of length 5. It is also an Euler circuit Hamilton Paths and Circuits In Eulerien graphs we considered the problem of finding paths or circuits that use each edge of a graph once.
Now we will investigate a similar problem: Given a graph , can we find a path that meets each vertex once (and only once)?
Such a path is called a Hamiltonian path (also called traceable path) is a path that visits each vertex exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle (also called Hamiltonian circuit, vertex tour or graph cycle) is a cycle that visits each vertex exactly once (except for the starting vertex, which is visited once at the start and once again at the end). A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian graph. Any Hamiltonian cycle can be converted to a Hamiltonian path by removing one of its edges, but a Hamiltonian path can be extended to Hamiltonian cycle only if its endpoints are adjacent. Finding Hamiltonian Circuits Example: Find a Hamilton path in each graph.
Solution:
a) In figure (a), the path ABCFDGE (in red) is a Hamilton path. If we return to vertex A, then ABCFDGEA is a Hamilton circuit. b) No Hamilton path exists. Shortest Path Problem We can assign weights to the edges of graphs, for example to represent the distance between cities in a railway network:
Toronto
650
700 Boston Chicago 200 600
New York Shortest Path Problem Such weighted graphs can also be used to model computer networks with response times or costs as weights.
One of the most interesting questions that we can investigate with such graphs is: What is the shortest path between two vertices in the graph, that is, the path
with the minimal sum of weights along the way?
Thiscorresponds to the shortest train connection or the fastest connection in
a computer network. The Traveling Salesman Problem Thetraveling salesman problem is one of the classical problems in computer science.
A traveling salesman wants to visit a number of cities and then return to his starting point. Of course he wants to save time and energy, so he wants to determine the shortest path for his trip.
We can represent the cities and the distances between them by a weighted, complete, undirected graph.
The problem then is to find the circuit of minimum total weight that visits each vertex exactly one. The Traveling Salesman Problem Example: What path would the traveling salesman take to visit the following cities? Toronto
650 550 700 Boston Chicago 700 200 600 New York Solution:The shortest path is Boston, New York, Chicago, Toronto, Boston (2,000 miles). Trees
