Graphs, Graph

Isomorphism
Muhammad Umar Nasir
Lecturer FCS, Riphah International University Lahore
Graph:

 A graph G consists of two things

 A set V of elements called vertices
 A set E of edges such that each e in E is identified with unique pair
(u,v) of vertices in V, denoted by e=(u,v)
 Each has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its
endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.
Graph:

 Infinite Graph:
 The set of vertices V of a graph G may be infinite. A graph with an
infinite vertex set is called infinite graph.

 Finite Graph:
 A graph with a finite number of vertices associated with it, called its
endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.
Graph:

 Simple Graph:
 A graph in which each edge connects two different vertices and
where no two edges connect the same pair of vertices is called simple
graph.

 Multi Graph:
 Graphs that may have multiple edges connecting the same vertices
are called multigraphs. When there are m different edges associated
to the same unordered pair of vertices {u, v}, we also say that {u, v}
is an edge of multiplicity m.
Graph:

 Pseudo Graph:
 Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges
connecting the same pair of vertices, are sometimes called pseudo
graph. (An edge that connects a vertex to itself is called loop edge.)

 Undirected Graph:
 A graph having undirected edges, is called undirected graph.
Graph:

 Directed Graph:
 Directed graph has directed edges. It is also called digraph. It has two types
 Simple Directed graph:
 When a directed graph has no loops and has no multiple directed edges is
called simple directed graph.
 Multi Directed graph:
 Directed graphs that have multiple directed edges from one vertex to
another, such graphs are called multi directed graph.

 Mixed Graph:
 A graph with both directed and undirected edges is called a mixed graph
Graph:
Graph:

 Adjacents:
 In undirected graphs two vertices are said to be adjacent if there is an
edge between them.
 When (u, v) is an edge of the graph G with directed edges, u is said to
be adjacent to v and v is said to be adjacent from u.
 The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u, v), and v is called the
terminal or end vertex of (u, v).
Graph:

a is adjacent to b , f
b is adjacent to a , f , e , c
c is adjacent to b , f , e , d
d is adjacent to c
e is adjacent to b , c , f
f is adjacent to a , b , c , e
g is adjacent to none
Graph:

a is adjacent to a , b , e
b is adjacent to d
c is adjacent to c , b
d is adjacent to c , e
e is adjacent to a , d , e
f is adjacent to none
Graph:

 Degree of a vertex:
 In an undirected graph, number of edges on a vertex is called degree
of the vertex. The degree of the vertex v is denoted by deg(v).
 In a directed graph the number of edges coming out of a vertex is
called out-degree and number of edges coming into it is called in-
degree of the vertex.
 In a directed graph the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg – (v).
The out-degree of v, is denoted by deg + (v).
Graph:

 Degree of a vertex:
 For Directed Graph:
 Sum of all in-degrees = sum of all out-degrees = number of edges.

 For Undirected Graph:

 Sum of all degrees = 2E
Graph:

 In Undirected Graphs:
 In G, deg(a) = 2, deg(b) = 4, deg(c) = 4, deg(d) = 1, deg(e) = 3,
deg(f) = 4, and deg(g) = 0.
 2+4+4+1+3+4+0 = 2(9)
 18=18
 In H, deg(a) = 4, deg(b) = 6, deg(c) = 1, deg(d) = 5, and deg(e) = 6.
 4+6+1+5+6=2(11)
 22=22
Graph:

 In directed Graph:
 The in-degrees in G are
 deg – (a) = 2, deg – (b) = 2, deg – (c) = 3, deg – (d) = 2, deg – (e) = 3,
and deg – (f) = 0.
 The out-degrees in G are
 deg +(a) = 4, deg +
(b) = 1, deg +
(c) = 2, deg +
(d) = 2, deg +
(e) = 3,
and deg + (f) =0.
 Sum of In-degree=Sum of Out-degree=No of edges
 2+2+3+2+3+0 = 4+1+2+2+3+0 = 12
 12 = 12 = 12
Graph:

 Isolated and Pendant Vertices:

 A vertex of degree zero is called isolated. It follows that an isolated
vertex is not adjacent to any vertex. A vertex is pendant if and only if
it has degree one. Consequently, a pendant vertex is adjacent to
exactly one other vertex.
Graphs Representation:

A graph can be represented in memory using two methods.

 Adjacency list
 Adjacency Matrix
Graphs Representation:

1) Adjacency List
Adjacency list specifies the vertices that are adjacent to each vertex of the graph.

Vertex Adjacent Vertices

a b,c,e

b a

c a,d,e

d c,e

e a,c,d
Graphs Representation:

Vertex Adjacent Vertices

a b , c , d, e

b b,d

c a,c,e

e b,c,d
Graphs Representation:

2) Adjacency Matrix
 Suppose that G = (V, E) is a simple graph where |V| = n. The
adjacency matrix is the n ˟ n zero-one matrix with 1 as its (i, j)th
entry when Vi and lJ are adjacent, and 0 as its (i, j)th entry when they
are not adjacent. In other words, if its adjacency matrix is A = [aij],
then
 aij=
Graphs Representation:

a b c d

a 0 1 1 1

b 1 0 1 0

c 1 1 0 0

d 1 0 0 0
Graphs Representation:

Adjacency Matrix for a Pseudo graph

a b c d

a 0 3 0 2

b 3 0 1 1

c 0 1 1 2

d 2 1 2 0
Graph Isomorphism:

 The word isomorphism comes from the Greek roots isos for
"equal" and morphe for "form."
 The simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are
isomorphic if there is a one-to-one and onto function f from VI
to V2 with the property that a and b are adjacent in G1 if and
only if f(a) and f(b) are adjacent in G2, for all a and b in V1.
Such a function f is called an isomorphism.
Graph Isomorphism:

Example 1:
Show that the graphs G = (V, E) and H = (W, F), in following Figures, are isomorphic.
Graph Isomorphism:

 Solution: The function f with f(U1) = VI, f(U2) = V4, f(U3) = V3, and
f(U4) = V2 is a one-to-one correspondence between V and W. To see
that this correspondence preserves adjacency, note that adjacent
vertices in G are UI and U2, UI and U3, U2 and U4, and U3 and U4,
and each of the pairs f(U1) = V1 and f(U2) = V4, f(U1) = VI and f(U3)
= V3, f(U2) = V4 and f(U4) = V2,and f(U3) = V3 and f(U4) = V2 are
adjacent in H.
Graph Isomorphism:
Example 2:
Show that graphs displayed in following Figures are not isomorphic.
Graph Isomorphism:

 Solution: Both G and H have five vertices and six edges. However, H
has a vertex of degree one, namely, e, whereas G has no vertices of
degree one. It follows that G and H are not isomorphic.
Graph Isomorphism:
Example 3:
Determine whether the graphs shown in following Figures are isomorphic or not.
Graph Isomorphism:

 Solution:
 The graphs G and H both have eight vertices and 10 edges. They also
both have four vertices of degree two and four of degree three.
 However, G and H are not isomorphic. To see this, note that because
deg(a) = 2 in G, a must correspond to either t, u, x, or y in H, because
these are the vertices of degree two in H. However, each of these
four vertices in H is adjacent to another vertex of degree two in H,
which is not true for a in G.