CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
SEMESTER 3 BTech CE, IT, CSE

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ALGEBRA

MA253

UNIT 3

Graph Theory
 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPH THEORY
In a hockey tournament there are 8 teams which
are denoted by S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z. Let the following
games has been played.
S X, Z T W, X, Z
U Y, Z V W,Y
W T, V, Y X S, T
Y U, V, W Z S, T, U
We may illustrate this situation by following
diagram
Or one can draw in the following way
Graphical Representation
The team are represented by dots. Two such dots
are join by line segment wherever the
corresponding teams have played each other. In
figure 1 dots have been joined by straight line
while in figure 2 some of the line segment are
straight but some are not. But since we are simply
interested in which games have been played. The
manner in which the pair of dots is joined is of no
importance so it does not matter whether the line
segments are straight or not. Many real world
situations can be described by means of such type
of diagram which are called graph.
Definition of GRAPH
A graph G=(V(G), E(G)) consist of two finite set V(G)
and E(G), where V(G)= The vertex set of graph, often
denoted by just V which is non-empty set of elements
called vertices or nodes and E(G)= The edge set of
the graph often denoted by E which is possibly empty
set elements called edges or arc such that e in E
assigned an unordered pair of vertices (u, v) called
the end vertices of e.
Order of a Graph G
The order of a graph G, written as n(G), is no. of
vertices in the graph G. It is denoted by |V(G)|.
The size of the graph G
The size of the graph G, written as e(G), is no. of
edges in graph. It is denoted by |E(G)|.
For the above example
V={S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z}
E={e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6, e7, e8, e9, e10}
e1 (S,Z)
e2 (S,X) ( UNORDERED PAIR )
e3 (T,Z)
e4 (T,X)
e5 (T,W)
e6 (U,Y)
e7 (Y,V)
e8 (V,W)
e9 (W,Y)
e10 ( U,Z)
The order of Graph is 8 and the size of Graph is
10.
Remark: If e is an edge with end vertices u and v
then e is said to join u and v.
Example 1: Let G=(V,E) .V={a, b, c, d, e} and
E={e1, e2, e3,e4,e5,..........e8} and the ends of the edges
are given by
e1 (a,b), e2 (b,c), e3 (c,c), e4 (c,d),
e5 (b,d), e6 (d,e), e7 (b,e), e8 (b,e).
Solution:
Example 2: Draw a diagram for each of the
following graph G(V,E) (i) V={a, b, c, d, e ,f} and
E={(a, d), (a, f) ,(b, c), (b ,f),(c, e)}.
Solution:
Loop (self loop) : An edge of graph which join a
vertex to itself is said to be a loop i.e., an edge of
the graph having identical end vertices is said to
be loop. In figure given below e is the loop:

Parallel Edge or Multi Edge: Let G be a graph,

if two (or more) edges of G have same vertices
then edges are said to be parallel.
Isolated Vertex: A vertex of a graph which is not
end of any edge is said to be isolated vertex.
Adjacent Vertices: Two vertices of a graph which
are joined by an edge are said to be adjacent
vertices or neighbours to each other.

Vertex Adjacent
Vertex
a b, c, e
b a
c a, e, d
d c ,e
e a, d, c
f (Isolated ----------
vertex)
Neighbour of a vertex: Let v be a vertex of a
graph G. If vertex v is joined by an edge to a vertex
u of g, then u is said to be neighbour of vertex v.
In graph G neighbour of a vertex a are b, c, e.
Neighbourhood set of vertex: The set of all
neighbour for fixed vertex v of a graph G is said to
be neighbourhood set for vertex v. It is denoted by
N(v). In graph G N(a)={b ,c, e}
Incident Edge: An edge e of a graph G is said to
be incident with vertex v if v is an end vertex of e.
Adjacent Edges: Two edges e and f of the graph
G which are incident with a common vertex is said
to be adjacent edges.
TYPES OF GRAPH
SIMPLE GRAPH: A Graph which neither contains loop nor
parallel edges (end points are same), is known as Simple
Graph. For example , the following graph is a simple graph.

MULTI GRAPH: A Graph which contains multi

edges(parallel) is known Multi – Graph.
PSEUDOGRAPH: A graph in which loops and multi edges
are allowed is called a Pseudo graph.
 MULTI GRAPH
PSEUDOGRAPH
NULL GRAPH :Let G = (V, E) be a graph, then it
is known as Null Graph if i.e. there is no edges in
graph or all the vertices of a graph are isolated.
TRIVIAL GRAPH: A graph having one vertex and
no edge is known as trivial graph.
Remark: Every Trivial graph is a null graph
but every null graph need not to be trivial
graph.
FINITE GRAPH: Let G be a graph, then it is said to be finite, if it has

finite number of vertices and finite number of edges. Clearly, a graph

with finite number of vertices must contain finite number of edges; this

implies a graph with finite number of vertices will be automatically

finite. A graph which is not finite is known as infinite graph.

DIRECTED GRAPH (Digraph): a directed graph (or digraph) is a

graph that is made up of a set of vertices connected by edges, where

the edges have a direction associated with them. The notation e says e

is an directed edge with initial vertex u and terminal or end vertex v.

MIXED GRAPH: A Graph is known as Mixed
Graph if some edges are directed and some edges
are undirected as shown in the figure above.
WEIGHTED GRAPH: A weighted graph is a
graph G in which each edge e has been assign a
real number w(e). w(e) is said to be weight( or
length ) of edge.

COMPLETE GRAPH: A simple graph in which

each pair of distinct vertices is joined by an edge is
said to be complete graph. A complete graph with
n vertices is denoted by Kn.
Complete graph with one, two, three, four, five, six vertices.

Remark: The number of edges of a complete graph Kn is .

Example: Find the number of edges in the graphs K 12
and K15 .
Solution: The number of edges of a Kn is .
For K12, Here n=12, No of edges in K12 is =66.
For K15 , Here n=15, No of edges in K15 is =105.
BIPARTITE GRAPH: Let G be a graph. If vertex set V of G can be divided into two

non empty disjoint subset X and Y (i.e. V= XUY, ) such that each edge of G has one

end point in X and one end point in Y then G is said to be bipartite graph. The

bipartite graph is denoted by Km,n where m, n denotes no. of vertices in X and Y.

Note: Bipartite graph does not have any loop.

COMPLETE BIPARTITE GRAPH: A simple bipartite graph with partition V=XUY is

said to be complete bipartite graph if every vertex in X is joined to each vertex of Y.

Note: The number total edges in a complete bipartite graph are mn because each m

vertices is connected to each of n vertices. It is denoted by Km,n where .The

complete bipartite graph K2,3, K3,3, K3,4, K2,6 are display in the figure
DEGREE OF VERTEX FOR UNDIRECTED GRAPH
Let G be a graph and v be any vertex of G. The number
of edges of G connected with the vertex v is called
degree of a vertex. Loop is counted twice. It is denoted
by d(v) or deg(v) or dG(v).
Remark: The degree of a vertex of a simple graph G
on n vertices cannot exceed n-1.
ODD VERTEX & EVEN VERTEX: In a graph a vertex
with odd degree is said to be odd vertex and vertex
with even degree is said to be even vertex.
Remark:
1. The degree of vertex is also known as its valency.
2. The degree of isolated vertex is zero.
3. The vertex with degree one is known as Pendant
vertex.
Example: Find the degree of the vertices in the
given graph. Also find the even and odd vertex in
the given graph.
FOR DIRECTED GRAPH
INDEGREE OF VERTEX: The in degree of a
vertex in directed graph is the number edges
ending at it and it is denoted by indeg(v) or d +(v).

OUT DEGREE OF A VERTEX: The out degree of

a vertex v in a directed graph is the number of
edges beginning from it and it is denoted by
outdeg(v) or d-(v).
The total degree is the sum of indegree and out
degree.
ODD VERTEX & EVEN VERTEX: In a graph a
vertex with odd degree is said to be odd vertex
Example : Find the in degree and out degree of
the vertices in following graph. Also find the even
and odd vertex in the graph.
Solution:
Example: Find the in degree and out degree of
the vertices in the given graph.

Solution:
THEOREM: If G=(V,E) be a directed graph with e
edges, then
 G  G ( v ) e
deg
vV

( v )  deg
vV


i.e., the sum of the out degree of the vertices of a

directed graph equals the sum of in degree of
vertices which equals the number of edges in G.
THEOREM: (FIRST THEOREM OF GRAPH
THEORY OR HANDSHAKING THEOREM): If
G=(V,E) be an undirected graph with e edges, then
 degG (v) 2e.
vV

i.e., The sum of degrees of the vertices in an

undirected graph is 2e.
Corollary:
In undirected graph has an even number of
vertices of odd degree.

Example: Is there a simple undirected graph

graph corresponding to the following degree
sequences (1, 1,2, 3)?
Solution: In any graph we know that there exists
always even number of odd vertices. But in given
graph total number of odd vertices is 3 i.e., odd.
Hence there exists no graph corresponding to this
degree sequence.
Example: How many edges does an undirected
graph have if it degree sequence is 4, 3, 3, 2, 2?
Solution: Using first theorem of graph theory we
know that
sum of the degree of vertices of the graph =
2X No. of Edges
4+3+3+2+2=2X No.of Edges.
14=2X No. of Egdes.
7=No. of Edges.
Thus, 7 edges required to construct a graph
having as degree sequence is 4, 3, 3, 2, 2.
Example: Determine the number of edges in an
undirected graph graph with 6 nodes(vertices), two of
degree 4 and four of degree 2.

Solution: Total degree of the vertex =2*4+4*2=16 .

We know that the sum of the degree of vertices in a

graph = 2X Number of edges.

Number of edges=16/2=8.

Thus, the number of edges in a graph with 6

nodes(vertices), two of degree 4 and four of degree 2 is
8.
Example: A non directed graph G has 8 edges. Find the number of

vertices if the degree of each vertex is 2.

Solution: Suppose that there are n vertices say v1, v2, v3, v4, ..., vn.

The degree of each vertices is same and it is 2,

i.e. deg(v1 )=deg(v2)= ...=deg(vn)=2.

Now from Handshaking Lemma we have,

Sum of degree of vertices =2*No of edges.

deg(v1 )+deg(v2)+ ...+deg(vn)=2*8

2+2+....+2(n times)=16

2n=16n=8.

The number of required vertices is 8.

Example: Suppose G is non directed graph with 12 edges. If it has 6

vertices each of degree 3 and rest have Equal degree less than 3. Find

the minimum and maximum number of vertices G can have.

Solution: We know that the

Sum of degree of all vertices = 2X No. of edges=2X12=24.

Total degree= 6X3+=24,

Now if degree of rest of the vertices(n)is 2 then 2n=6 n = 3 and in total

9 vertices.

And if degree of rest of the vertices(n) is 1 then n = 6 and in total 12

vertices.

G can have 9 and 12 Minimum and maximum number of vertices

respectively.
REGULAR GRAPH: In a graph if all vertices are
of same degree then graph is said to be regular
graph.
Remark:
1)If every vertex has degree r , then graph is
called regular graph of degree r.
2)Every null graph is a regular graph of degree
zero.
3)If a graph has n vertex and is regular of degree
r, then it has rn/2 edge.
4)All regular graphs need not to be complete but
all complete graph are regular.
K- REGULAR GRAPH: If The degree of every
vertex of graph G is K , then G is said to be K-
regular graph.

ISOMORPHIC GRAPH: Let G1( V1, E1) and G2( V2,

E2) be two graph. These two graphs are said to be
isomorphic if there exist one-to-one
correspondence between their vertices as well as
edges.
Remark:
1)By definition two isomorphic graphs must have
Equal number of vertices with same degree.
2)One-to-one correspondence between vertex set
Example: Check whether the given graphs are
isomorphic or not.

Solution:
CONDITION 1: Check no. of vertices and edges in
both the graph are same or not. If same, then
check condition 2.
Both G and H have six vertices and seven edges.
Both have four vertices of degree two and two
vertices of degree three.
CONDITION 2: Find one to one correspondence between
ONE TO ONE ONE TO ONE
CORRESPONDENCE OF CORRESPONDENCE OF EDGE
VERTEX SET SET

u1  v6 (u1 , u2 )  (v6 , v3 )
u2  v3 (u2 , u3 )  (v3 , v4 )
u3  v4 (u3 , u4 )  (v4 , v5 )
u4  v5 (u4 , u5 )  (v5 , v1 )
u5  v1 (u5 , u6 )  (v1 , v2 )
u6  v2 (u6 , u2 )  (v2 , v3 )
(u1 , u4 )  (v6 , v5 )
Since One to One correspondence exist between vertex as well
as edge set of the given graph, therefore the graph G and H are
isomorphic.

Example: Check whether the given graphs are isomorphic or not.

Solution: CONDITION 1: Check no. of vertices and edges in both the graph are same or not.
If same, then check condition 2
The graphs G and H both have eight vertices and 10 edges. They also both have four vertices
of degree two and four of degree three.
 .

CONDITION 2: Find one to one correspondence between vertex set and edge set of both
graph.
However, G and H are not isomorphic. To see this, note that because deg(a) = 2 in G, a must
correspond to either t, u, x, or y in H, because these are the vertices of degree two in H.
However, each of these four vertices in H is adjacent to another vertex of degree two in H,
which is not true for a in G.
Since One to One correspondence between vertexes does not exit therefore G
and H are not isomorphic.

COMPLEMENT OF A GRAPH: If the edges that exist in graph I are absent in

another graph II, and if both graph I and graph II with same vertices are
combined together to form a complete graph, then graph I and graph II
are called complements of each other. Complement of Graph G is
G
denoted by .
SELF COMPLEMENTARY GRAPH: A simple graph is said to
be self complementary if it is isomorphic to its own
complement.
Remarks:
• Let G be a simple graph with n vertices and be its complement.
G
Then for each vertex v in G we have
dG (v)  dG (v) n  1, n is the number of vertices in G.

G
• Let G be a simple graph with n vertices and be its complement.
Suppose G has exactly one even vertex then G have (n-1) odd
vertices.
• The complement of graph G with n vertices can be obtained from
the complete graph Kn by rubbing out all the edges of G. i.e. Null
graph generated from Complete graph G BY REMOVING EDGES is
a complement graph of G.
Example: Find the complement of the graph and also find
whether it is self complementary or not.
R
 MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF GRAPH
A diagrammatic representation of a graph has limited
usefulness; such representation is only possible when the
number of vertices and number of edges are reasonably small.
Also their representation in computer memory requires lot of
storage space. So a matrix is a convenient and useful way of
representing a graph to a computer. There are two different
ways of representing a graph inside a computer namely by using

1. Adjacency Matrix

2. Incidence Matrix of graph.

 ADJACENCY MATRIX FOR UNDIRECTED GRAPH: Let G be a graph with n vertices listed as v1,
v2,..., vn. The adjacency Matrix A(G) of G with respect to this particular listing of vertices of G is
the matrix A(G)=[aij] where (i,j)th entry, aij , is the no. of edges joining the vertex vi to vj.

REMARKS:
1. In A(G) we have aij=aji for each i and j i.e., adjacency matrix for a graph is symmetric.
2. If G has no loops then all the entry of the main diagonal of A(G) are zero.
3. For a simple graph, the entries of A(G) are either zero or one.

INCIDENCE MATRIX FOR UNDIRECTED GRAPH: Let v1, v2,v3,........vn be the n vertices of a graph G
and e1, e2, e3,.....em be the m edges of G. Then the incidence matrix of G w.r.t to this particular
listing of vertices and edges is m matrix(vertices edges). The entries of a matrix can be derived
by using
0, if vi is not end po int of e j

I (G ) M (G )  mi j   .
1, if vi is end po int of e j

REMARKS: R
1. The sum of the elements in the ith row of M(G) gives the degree of vertex v i.(vi does not
contain loop)
2. The sum of the elements in each column is 2 (corresponding to 2 ends of the edges)
R
Example: Determine the number of loops and multiple edges in a
multi graph G from its adjacency matrix.
1 1 3 0
1 2 1 3 
A G  
3 1 0 1
 
0 3 1 0
Solution: Since adjacency matrix A is a square matrix of order 4, graph G has four vertices v 1,
v2,v3, v4. The diagonal of A is indicating the vertices having loops because these entries
indicate the number of edges originating and terminating at the same vertex. Thus, there are
three loop: one at v1 and two at v2 .
Multi edges are 6.
 MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DIRECTED GRAPH
ADJACENCY MATRIX FOR DIRECTED GRAPH: For
a directed graph
m if m edges G at
begining consists
vertex vi andof n at
ending vertices,
vj an
aij 
adjacency
0 matrix A=[a ij ] is defined as:
, otherwise

REMARK: The sum of non zero elements in the matrix is equal

to the number of edges in the directed graph.
INCIDENCE MATRIX FOR DIRECTED GRAPH: For a directed
graph G consists of n vertices and m edges, an incidence matrix
M=[mij ] is defined as :
1 , if vi is starting vertex of edg e j

mij  1 , if vi is ending vertex of edge e j .
 0 , if v neither starting nor ending vertex of edge e
 i j
REMARK: The sum of non zero elements in the matrix is equal to the number of edges in
the directed graph. R
R
The Adjacency matrix of an Undirected graph
is always Symmetric matrix.
The Adjacency matrix of a directed graph
may be Symmetric matrix.
R
 H G

REMARKS:
• Every graph is its own sub graph.
• A sub graph of a sub graph of G is a sub graph of
G.
• Any simple graph with n vertices is a sub graph of
the complete graph Kn.
H G
PROPER
H  G SUBGRAPH:
H G Let
V (H ) VH
(Gbe
) a sub
E ( H )graph
 E (G ) of G
i.e., . If , but i.e.
and then H is said to be a proper sub
graph of G.
SPANNING SUBGRAPH: A sub graph H of graph
G is said to be a spanning sub graph of G if
V(H)=V(G) i.e. sub graph of a graph G is said to be
spanning sub graph if it contain all vertices of G.
VERTEX DELETED SUBGRAPH:
Definition 1: Let G=(V,E) be a graph and V has at
least two elements. For any vertex v of G , G-v
denotes the sub graph of G with vertex set V-{v}
and whose edges are all those edges of G which
are not incident with vertex v .i.e., graph G-v is
obtained from graph G by removing vertex v and
all the edges of G connected to v. Graph G-v is said
to be vertex deleted sub graph.
Definition 2: Let G=(V,E) be the given graph and
U be a proper subset of V, then G-U denotes the
sub graph of G with vertex set V- U and whose
edges are all those of G which are not incident
with any vertex of U. For example
EDGE DELETED SUBGRAPH: Let G=(V,E) be
the given graph and e be the edge of G then G-e
denotes the subgraph of G having V as its vertex
set and E-{e} as it edge set. i.e. G-e is obtained
from G by removing edge e (but not the end
point of e) G-e is said to be edge deleted sub
graph of G.
Definition 2: Let G =(V,E) be the given graph. F
be a subset of edge set E. G-F denoted the sub
graph of G with vertex set V and edge set E-F i.e.
G-F is obtained by deleting all the edges in F but
not their end point. G-F is also said to be edge
deleted sub graph G.
WALK: A walk in a graph G is a finite alternating
sequence of vertices and edges beginning and
ending with vertices such that each edge is
incident with vertices preceding and following it.
R
Open walk-A walk is said to be an open walk if the
starting and ending vertices are different i.e. the
origin vertex and terminal vertex are different.
Closed walk-A walk is said to be a closed walk if the
starting and ending vertices are identical i.e. if a
walk starts and ends at the same vertex, then it is
said to be a closed walk.

the above diagram:

W=1a2d3e4g5f3 is an open walk. Length of a W is 5.
W=1a2d3e4g5f3c1 is a closed walk. Length of a W is
6.
TRIVIAL WALK: A walk containing no edge is said to
be trivial walk. For an vertex v, W=v is said to be trivial
walk . Length of trivial walk is zero.
In above example W=1 is a trivial walk.
TRAIL: A Trail is a walk in which no edges are repeated.
In above example the walk W=1a2d3e4g5 is a trail.
REMARK: Trail is a walk but every walk is not a Trail.
For example the walk 1a2d3c1a2 is a walk but not trail
PATH: A path is a walk in which no vertex is repeated.
The walk 1a2d3e4g5 is a path.
REMARKS:
• It is clear that in path no vertex is repeated.
• Each path is trail but each trail need not be a
path.
• A path with n vertices is denoted by P n and has
length is n-1.
• Every path is a walk but each walk is not a path.
• A loop can be included in walk but not in a path.

Cycle or Circuit
In graph theory, a cycle in a graph is a non-empty
trail in which the only repeated vertices are the first
and last vertices.
K-CYCLE: A cycle of length k is said to be K- cycle
i.e. A cycle with K edge are said to be K cycle.
REMARK:
• If K is odd then K- cycle is said to be an odd and
K is even then K-cycle is said to be even.
• An n-cycle is denoted by Cn.
• A loop is just a 1-cycle.
E.g. W=3c1a2d3 is a cycle and its length is 3.
E.g. C3 =3c1a2d3 is a 3-cycle
 CONNECTED GRAPH
PATH: A path is a walk in which no vertex is repeated.
CONNECTED VERTEX: A vertex u is said to be
connected to vertex v in a graph G if there is a path in
G from u to v.
NOTE:
1.An vertex u is connected to itself by trivial path P=u.
2. If u is connected to v and v is connected to w then u
is connected to w.

CONNECTED Undirected GRAPH AND

DISCONNECTED GRAPH
A graph G is said to be connected if there is at least
one path between every pair of vertices of G. Otherwise
graph G is said to be disconnected.
R

Every disconnected graph can be split into number of connected subgraphs,

called connected components.
 CONNECTEDNESS FOR DIRECTED GRAPH
We cannot use the same criteria to determine the
connectivity of a directed graph as that for an
undirected graph.

PATH: A path is a walk in which no vertex is repeated.

WEAKLY CONNECTED GRAPH

A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path
between every two vertices in the corresponding
undirected graph.
UNILATERALLY CONNECTED
A directed graph is called unilaterally connected
if given any two vertices of the graph there exist
a path from one vertex to another although a
reverse path does not necessarily exist.(Directed
graph consider as directed graph)

(v1 to v3 path exists but v3 to v1 path does not

exist)
STRONGLY CONNECTED
A directed graph is called strongly connected if for
any pair of vertices u and v, there exist a path from
u to v as well as v to u. .(Directed graph consider
as directed graph)
REMARK:
1. Every strongly connected graph is unilaterally
connected but converse is not true.
2. Every strongly connected graph is weakly
connected but converse is not true.
 .
VERTEX CONNECTIVITY AND EDGE CONNECTIVITY
CUT VERTEX OR ARTICULATION POINT
A cut vertex is a vertex whose removal increases number of
connected components given graph.

Remarks:
1. Not all graph have cut vertices.
2. The complete graph ,has no cut vertices.
VERTEX CONNECTIVITY
Let G be a simple graph. The smallest number of vertices in
G whose deletion from G leaves either a disconnected graph
or complete graph with one vertex is said to be vertex
connectivity of G. It is denoted by
The graph G given in the above figure has no cut
vertex. But a disconnected sub graph is obtained
when two of these vertices 2 and 6 or 2 and 5 are
deleted. Therefore for this graph G ,
REMARKS
1.For the deletion of any vertex from Kn result in
Kn-1 and in general the deletion of t vertices (t<n)
result in Kn-t therefore , =n-1.
2. A connected graph G has =1 iff G=K 2 (i.e.
complete graph with 2 vertices) or G has a cut
vertex.
3. = 0 iff G=K1 or G is disconnected.
CUT EDGE( BRIDGE) OR ISTHMUS
A bridge is an edge whose removal increases number
of connected components of given graph.
REMARK: It is not necessary that all the graph have
cut edge.
EDGE CONNECTIVITY
Let G be a simple graph. The smallest number of edges
in G whose deletion from G leaves either a
disconnected graph or complete graph with one vertex
is said to be edge connectivity of G. It is denoted by.
REMARKS:
If G is a graph with n vertices, is either 0 or 1.
G is disconnected graph iff
G is disconnected graph, =
For any graph
Example : Find the cut vertices , cut edges,
vertex connectivity and edge connectivity in
the following figure
Solution:
 PLANAR GRAPHS
A graph is said to be planar if there exists some
geometric representation of G which can be drawn
on a plane such that no two of its edges crossovers
to each other. OR A graph that cannot be drawn
on a plane without a crossover between it edges is
called planar graph.
REGION OF A GRAPH
A region of a planar graph is defined to be an
area of the plane that is bounded by edges and is
not further divided into subareas.
EULER’S FORMULA
If a connected planar graph G has ‘n’ vertices, ‘e’
edges and ‘r’ number of regions, then
Result: If a planar graph has ‘k’ number of
components, then
Result: If G is connected simple planar graph with
If G is connected simple planar graph with vertices
and ‘e’ edges and
Example: A connected planar graph has 10
vertices each of degree 3. Into how many regions
does a representation of this planar graph split
the plane?
Solution: Here
. Hence using first theorem of graph theory, the sum
of degrees of all the vertices will be 30, so number of
edges in a graph is 15.
Using Euler’s formula,
 10
r
Note: we include the outside area of a graph as
region.
Examples
Cycle or Circuit : In graph theory, a cycle in
a graph is a non-empty trail in which the only
repeated vertices are the first and last vertices.
TRAIL: A Trail is a walk in which no edges are
repeated.
EULERIAN AND HAMILTONIAN GRAPH
EULERIAN PATH: Eulerian trail (or Eulerian
path) is a trail in a finite graph that visits every
edge exactly once (Repetition of vertices is allowed.
Path in title is a word and it is not a definition of a
Path)
EULERIAN CIRCUIT: Eulerian
circuit or Eulerian cycle is an Eulerian trail that
starts and ends on the same vertex.
EULERIAN GRAPH: Eulerian graph is a graph
FOR EXAMPLE
 EXERCISE

EXAMPLE: Check that Euler circuits and paths

exit or not if yes then find.

THEOREM: An undirected graph is an Eulerian graph
if and only if all the vertices are even.
THEOREM: A directed graph is an Eulerian graph if
and only if in degree and out degree of for all the
vertices are same.
HAMILTONIAN PATH: Hamiltonian path in a graph
G is a path which passes through all the vertices of a
graph exactly once.(Repetition is not allowed)
HAMILTONIAN CIRCUIT: Hamiltonian circuit in a
graph G is a circuit which passes through all the
vertices of a graph exactly once. Also, initial and
terminal vertex must be same. (Repetition is not
allowed)
HAMILTONIAN GRAPH: Hamiltonian graph is a
graph which contains at least one Hamiltonian circuit.
EXAMPLE: Following graph contains
Hamiltonian path and circuit.

Path : - A F B C G D E ;
Circuit :- A F B C G D E A
 EXERCISE

EXAMPLE: Check that Hamiltonian circuits

and paths exit or not if yes then find.
 EXERCISE

EXAMPLE: Check that Euler path, Euler

circuit, Hamiltonian path and Hamiltonian
circuit exist or not.
 MATCHING IN A GRAPH
Matching Graph
Let G be a graph. A Matching graph M(G) or M is
a subgraph of a graph G where there are no edges
adjacent to each other. Simply, there should not be
any common vertex between any two edges. i.e.
each vertex of G is incident with at most one edge
in M. Therefore The vertices of M(G) should have a
degree of 1 or 0.
Example: Find the Matching graph of following
graph.
Answer:
Remark
1) Null graph as a sub graph of G is always Matching
graph of G.
2) In a matching, if deg(V) = 1, then (V) is said to be
matched. if deg(V) = 0, then (V) is not matched.
3) In a matching, no two edges are adjacent. It is
because if any two edges are adjacent, then the
degree of the vertex which is joining those two
edges will have a degree of 2 which violates the
matching rule.

Maximal Matching
A matching M of graph ‘G’ is said to maximal if no
other edges of ‘G’ can be added to M.
Example: Find the Maximal Matching graph of
following graph.

Answer:
Maximum Matching
It is also known as largest maximal matching.
Maximum matching is defined as the maximal
matching with maximum number of edges.
The number of edges in the maximum matching of
‘G’ is called its matching number.

Perfect Matching
A matching (M) of graph (G) is said to be a perfect
match, if
deg(V) = 1, for every vertex of M.
Example: Find the matching number of following
graph.

Answer:

For a graph given in the above example, M1 and M2

are the maximum matching of ‘G’ and its matching
number is 2. Hence by using the graph G, we can form
only the subgraphs with only 2 edges maximum. Hence
we have the matching number as two. Since degree of
each vertex is 1. Therefore it is a perfect matching.
 Graph coloring
A graph coloring is an assignment of labels or
colors, to the vertices of a graph such that no two
adjacent vertices share the same color.

The chromatic number χ(G) of a graph G is the

minimal
number of colors for which such an assignment is
possible. Other types of colorings on graphs also
exist, most notably edge colorings that may be
subject to various constraints.
E
Remark:
1) The chromatic number of Kn is n because In the complete
graph, each vertex is adjacent to remaining (n – 1) vertices.
Hence, each vertex requires a new color.
2) The chromatic number of trivial graph is 1.
3) The chromatic number of Null graph with n vertices graph is
n.

Edge coloring
The most common type of edge coloring is similar to vertex
colorings. Each edge of a graph has a color assigned to it in
such a way that no two adjacent edges are the same color. Such
a coloring is a proper edge coloring or edge coloring. The
minimum required number of colors for the edge coloring of a
given graph is called the chromatic index of the graph.
The chromatic index is 4.

The chromatic index is 3.

 APPLICATION OF GRAPH THEORY IN
DIFFERENT FIELDS
The ideas and concepts of Graph theory are widely
used in various branches of science. In general,
without knowing the concepts of graph we also use
these in our day to day life. For example when we have
to go to a place which is connecting with our starting
point by different ways then we use the shortest road
to arrive the destination soon. Here if we observe this
problem from the point of view of graph theory the two
places can be considered as vertices and roads are as
edges. If we also consider the direction of travel, then
the graph must be directed. Similarly, we can use these
concepts of graph theory in various situations. A graph
can be used to present almost any physical situation
 Graph Node or Vertices Edges or Arcs
Communication Telephone, Computer Fibber Optic Cable
Internet Class C Network Connection
Circuit Gate, Register, Wire
Processor
Transportation Street Intersection, Highway, Airway
Airport Route
Social Relation Person Friendship,

APPLICATIONS IN GOOGLE MAP

Now a days, Google map is a very useful tool for
travelling anywhere in the world. Using Google map we
can find all routes from any place to any other place and
also can find the shortest route. In case of Google map,
we can consider the places as vertices of graph and the
routes as the edges. Then the software of google map,
when find the routes between two places it find all edges
between these two places or vertices and also gives the
shortest edge as the shortest path.
APPLICATION IN INTERNET
Internet is a very useful invention of modern science.
In the working technique of internet the concepts of
graph theory are used. In case of connectivity of
internet, all the users are considered as vertices and
the connection between them are edges. Then all
internet users form a very complicated graph and data
and information from one user to another user are
shared through the shortest route in between them.
Similarly, in case of social networking sites one friend
is connected to all of his friend and his friends are also
connected to others. If we consider the friends as
vertices of graph and define an edge in between them
if they are friend then it will be a graph. While using
Google to search for Webpages, Pages are linked to
each other by hyperlinks. Each page is a vertex and the
APPLICATION IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
There is a major role of graph theory in computer
science. Graph theory concepts are used to
develop the algorithm of different programs. Using
these algorithms and programmes we can solve
different theoretical problems. There are some
algorithms listed below.
(1). Shortest path algorithm in a network.
(2). Finding minimum spanning tree.
(3). Finding graph planarity.
(4). Algorithms to find adjacency matrices.
(5). Algorithms to find the connectedness.
(6). Algorithms to find the cycles in a graph etc.
There are many computer languages which helps
to solve different problems using graph theory
concepts.
Some computer languages available are listed as
follows:
(1). GTPL - Graph Theoretic Language
(2). GASP - Graph Algorithm Software Package.
(3). HINT - Extension of LISP.
(4). GRASPE - Another extension of LISP.
(5). DIP - Directed Graph Processor.
(6). An Interactive Graph Theory System -
Extension of FORTRAN.
(7). GEA - Graphic Extended ALGOL.
(8). GIRL - Graph Information Retrieval Language.
TO CLEAR ROAD BLOCKAGE:
When roads of a city are blocked due to ice.
Planning is needed to put salt on the roads. Then
Euler paths or circuits are used to traverse the
streets in the most efficient way.