UNIT- II

JUNCTION DIODE
CHARACTERISTICS AND
SPECIAL SEMI CONDUCTOR
DIODES
BY
Radhika Surampudi
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE

DNR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY BALUSUMUDI, BHIMAVARAM
 SYLLABUS
• UNIT-I:Semi Conductor Physics : Insulators, Semi conductors, and Metals classification
using energy band diagrams, mobility and conductivity, electrons and holes in
intrinsic semi conductors, extrinsic semi conductors, drift and diffusion, charge
densities in semiconductors, Hall effect, continuity equation, law of junction, Fermi
Dirac function, Fermi level in intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors
• UNIT- II: Junction Diode Characteristics : Open circuited p-n junction, Biased p-n
junction, p-n junction diode, current components in PN junction Diode, diode
equation, V-I Characteristics, temperature dependence on V-I characteristics, Diode
resistance, Diode capacitance, energy band diagram of PN junction Diode.
• Special Semiconductor Diodes: Zener Diode, Breakdown mechanisms, Zener diode
applications, LED, Photo diode, Tunnel Diode, SCR, UJT. Construction, operation and
characteristics of all the diodes are requiredto be considered.
• UNIT- III: Rectifiers and Filters: Basic Rectifier setup, half wave rectifier, full wave
rectifier, bridge rectifier, derivations of characteristics of rectifiers, rectifier circuits-
operation, input and output waveforms, Filters, Inductor filter, Capacitor filter,
comparison of various filter circuits in terms of ripple factors.
• UNIT- IV: Transistor Characteristics: BJT: Junction transistor, transistor
current components, transistor equation, transistor configurations,
transistor as an amplifier, characteristics of transistor in Common Base,
Common Emitter and Common Collector configurations, Ebers-Moll model
of a transistor, punch through/ reach through, Photo transistor, typical
transistor junction voltage values. FET: FET types, construction, operation,
characteristics, parameters, MOSFET-types, construction, operation,
characteristics, comparison between JFET and MOSFET.
• UNIT- V: Transistor Biasing and Thermal Stabilization : Need for biasing,
operating point, load line analysis, BJT biasing- methods, basic stability,
fixed bias, collector to base bias, self bias, Stabilization against variations
in VBE, Ic, and β, Stability factors, (S, S' , S'’), Bias compensation, Thermal
runaway, Thermal stability. FET Biasing- methods and stabilization
• UNIT- VI: Small Signal Low Frequency Transistor Amplifier Models: BJT:
Two port network, Transistor hybrid model, determination of h-
parameters, conversion of h-parameters, generalized analysis of transistor
amplifier model using h-parameters, Analysis of CB, CE and CC amplifiers
using exact and approximate analysis, Comparison of transistor amplifiers.
FET: Generalized analysis of small signal model, Analysis of CG, CS and CD
amplifiers, comparison of FET amplifiers.
 UNIT- II
• Junction Diode Characteristics : Open circuited p-
njunction, Biased p-n junction,p-n junction diode,
current components in PN junction Diode, diode
equation,V-I Characteristics, temperature dependence
on V-I characteristics, Diode resistance, Diode
capacitance, energy band diagram of PN junction
Diode.
• Special Semiconductor Diodes: Zener Diode,
Breakdown mechanisms, Zener diode applications,
LED, LCD, Photo diode, Varactor diode, Tunnel Diode,
DIAC, TRIAC, SCR, UJT. Construction, operation and
characteristics of all the diodes is required to be
considered.
 Contents
• OPEN CIRCUITED P-NJUNCTION
• BIASED P-N JUNCTION
• P-N JUNCTION
• COMPONENTS IN PN JUNCTION DIODE
• DIODE EQUATION
• V-I CHARACTERISTICS
• TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE ON V-I CHARACTERISTICS
• DIODE RESISTANCE
• DIODE CAPACITANCE
• ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF PN JUNCTION DIODE.
 Discrete Semiconductor Devices
 Semiconductor Materials
 Conductor and Insulators.
 N-type, P-Type, electron, and hole current
 PN junction, depletion region, potential
barrier.
 Diodes

 Forward Bias, reverse bias

 Diode applications
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Zener Diodes
 Photo Diodes

7
 Conductor and Insulators.
Atomic Model

the gap can be crossed

only when breakdown
conditions occur the gap is smaller
and can be crossed the conduction band
when a photon and valence band
is absorbed overlap, so there is no gap

8
Silicon and Germanium

9
Conduction Electron and Holes.

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room

temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the
valence band into the conduction band, becoming
free electron called ‘Conduction Electron’

It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.

10
 Electron Hole Current.
In conduction band : When a voltage is
applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,
the thermally generated free electrons in
the conduction band, are now easily
attracted toward the positive end.

This movement of free electrons is one

type of current in a semiconductive
material and is called electron current.

In valance band: In valance band holes generated due to free electrons. Electrons
in the valance band are although still attached with atom and not free to move,
however they can move into nearby hole with a little change in energy, thus
leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from
one place to another in the crystal structure. It is called hole current.

11
Electron Hole Current.

12
 N-type semiconductor
Electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band make the semiconductive
material to conduct but they are too limited to
make it a very good conductor..

Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can

drastically increase the conductivity of
material. The process is called doping.

Addition of a penta-valent material icnreases

the number of conduction electrons.
An antimony
Majority carrier: electrons (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the
center. The extra electron from the
Minority carriers: holes Sb atom becomes a free electron.

Material is called N-type semiconductor

13
P-type semiconductor.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon

crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity
atom is shown in the center.

14
 PN Junction
Although P-type material has holes in excess and N-type material has a number of
free conduction electron however the net number of proton and electron are equal
in each individual material keeping it just neutral.

The basic silicon structure at the instant

of junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers.

Free electrons in the n region near the

pn junction begin to diffuse across the
junction and fall into holes near the
junction in the p region.

15
Energy band and potential barrier

16
PN Junction

For every electron that diffuses across

the junction and
combines with a hole, a positive charge
is left in the n region and a negative
charge is created in the p region,
forming a barrier potential.

This action continues until the voltage of

the barrier repels further diffusion.

The blue arrows between the positive

and negative charges in the depletion
region represent the electric field.

17
 Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is doped
as p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in
between.

 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

Diode symbol
p n

Depletion
region

18
 Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is doped
as p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in
between.
 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

p n

Depletion
region

Diode symbol

 It conducts current in one direction and offers high (ideally

infinite) resistance in other direction.

19
 Forward Biased
 Forward bias is a condition that allows current through
pn junction.

 A dc voltage (Vbais) is applied to bias a diode.

 Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and
negative side is connected with n-region.
 Vbais must be greater than ‘barrier potential’ As more electrons flow into the
depletion region reducing the
number of positive ions and
IF (mA)
similarly more holes move in
V reducing the positive ions.
+ F–
This reduces the width of
IF C depletion region.
–
Current limiting
R
resistance + VBIAS
+ –
B Knee
A VF
0
0 0.7 V
20
 Reverse Biased
 Reverse bias is a condition that prevents
current through junction.
 Positive side of Vbias is connected to the n-
region whereas the negative side is
connected with p-region.
The positive side of bias voltage
 Depletion region get wider with this attracts the majority carriers of
configuration. n-type creating more positive
ions at the junction.
VBIAS VR
VBR 0
0
– + This widens the depletion
Knee
region.
I=0A
R
VBIAS
– +
IR

21
 Reverse Current

 A small amount current is generated due to

the minority carriers in p and n regions.
 These minority carriers are produced due to
thermally generated hole-electron pairs.
 Minority electrons in p-region pushed towards
+ve bias voltage, cross junction and then fall in
the holes in n-region and still travel in valance
band generating a hole current.

22
Reverse Breakdown

 If the external bias voltage is increased

to a value call breakdown voltage the
reverse current can increase drastically.
 Free minority electrons get enough
energy to knock valance electron into
the conduction band.
 The newly released electron can further
strike with other atoms.
 The process is called avalanche effect.

23
 Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for forward bias.
 The current in forward biased called forward current and is IF (mA)

designated If. C

 At 0V (Vbias) across the diode, there is no forward current.

 With gradual increase of Vbias, the forward voltage and Knee
A B
0 VF

forward current increases. 0 0.7 V

 A resistor in series will limit the forward current in order to

protect the diode from overheating and permanent damage. V
+ F–
 A portion of forward-bias voltage drops across the limiting
IF
resistor. –
 Continuing increase of Vf causes rapid increase of forward R
+ VBIAS
current but only a gradual increase in voltage across diode.
+ –

24
 Diode V-I Characteristic

 Dynamic Resistance:
• The resistance of diode is not constant but it changes over the entire curve.
So it is called dynamic resistance.

25
 Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for reverse bias.
 With 0V reverse voltage there is no
reverse current. VBR 0
 There is only a small current through the VR
Knee
0

junction as the reverse voltage increases.

 At a point, reverse current shoots up with
the break down of diode. The voltage
called break down voltage. This is not
normal mode of operation.
IR
 After this point the reverse voltage
remains at approximately VBR but IR
increase very rapidly.
 Break down voltage depends on doping
level, set by manufacturer.

26
 Diode V-I Characteristic

The complete V-I

characteristic curve

27
The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions

The pn junction
excited by a constant-
current source
supplying a current I
in the forward
direction.
The depletion layer
narrows and the
barrier voltage
decreases by V volts,
which appears as an
external voltage in
the forward direction.
SJTU Zhou Lingling 28
 Current Components of PN Junction
Diode

Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is

assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; NA
>>ND. SJTU Zhou Lingling 29
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
Excess minority carrier concentration:

v
pn(xn)  pn0e VT

v
np(xp) np0e VT

 Exponential relationship
 Small voltage incremental give rise to great incremental of
excess minority carrier concentration.

SJTU Zhou Lingling 30

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
Distribution of excess minority concentration:

(x－x
n)
L
p
n()
x p
no
[pn(x
n)p
n0]
e p

(x
＋ x
p)
n
p()
x n
p0[
n p
( x
p)n
p0]
e Ln

Where
Lp  Dp p
Ln 
are called Dn n
excess-minority-carrier lifetime.
n, p

SJTU Zhou Lingling 31

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
The total current can be obtained by the diffusion current of
majority carriers.

I  I pD  InD
 A(J pD  JnD)
dp(x) dn(x）
 A(q q )
dx xxn dx xxp
Dp pn0 Dnnp0 V
 Aq(  )(eVT
1)
Lp Ln

SJTU Zhou Lingling 32

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
The saturation current is given by :

Dp pn0 Dnnp0
Is qA(  )
Lp Ln
2 Dp
Dn
qAn
i (  )
LpnD LnnA

SJTU Zhou Lingling 33

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
I-V characteristic equation:

•
iI
se
（ 
1) nV
T

Exponential relationship, nonlinear.

• Is is called saturation current, strongly depends
on temperature.
• or 2 ， in general
• VTn is 1
thermal voltage. n1

SJTU Zhou Lingling 34

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
assuming V1 at I1 and V2 at I2
then:

I I

VVnV
ln22.
3nV
lg2
2 1 T I1
T I1
* For a decade changes in current, the diode
voltage drop changes by 60mv (for n=1) or
120mv (for n=2).

SJTU Zhou Lingling 35

 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
• Turn-on voltage
A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage
drop across it. It’s called turn-on voltage.
VD(on) 0.7V For silicon
For germanium
VD(on) 0.25
V
• Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-on
voltage at different currents.
• Negative TC,
TC   2mv /

C

SJTU Zhou Lingling 36

 Junction Capacitance

• Diffusion Capacitance
 Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
 Small-signal diffusion capacitance

• Depletion capacitance
 Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
 Small-signal depletion capacitance

SJTU Zhou Lingling 37

 Diffusion Capacitance

According to the definition:

C  dQ
d dV Q
The charge stored in bulk region is obtained from below
equations:

Q  [pn(x)pno]dx
p Aq
xn

Aq
[pn(xn)pno]Lp
pIp

SJTU Zhou Lingling 38

 Diffusion Capacitance
The expression for diffusion capacitance:

d V
C d  [ T I s e V T ]
dV
T
 ( )IQ
VT
 T
( )IQ Forward-bias, linear relationship
  VT Reverse-bias, almost inexistence
0


SJTU Zhou Lingling 39

 Depletion Capacitance

According to the definition: C dQ

j dV
RV
V R Q

Actually this capacitance is similar to parallel plate

capacitance. A A
Cj  ＝
W 2 1 1
dep
[ (  )(V0 vR)
q NA NB
Cj0

(1VR )
Vo

SJTU Zhou Lingling 40

 Depletion Capacitance

• A more general formula for depletion capacitance is :

Cj0
Cj 
V
(1 R )m
V 0

• Where m is called grading coefficient. m 1 ~ 1

3 2
• If the concentration changes sharply, m  1
• Forward-bias condition, C2 2
j C j0
• Reverse-bias condition, C C
j d

SJTU Zhou Lingling 41

 Junction Capacitance

Remember:

a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are

incremental capacitances, only are applied under
the small-signal circuit condition.
b) They are not constants, they have relationship with
the voltage across the pn junction.

SJTU Zhou Lingling 42

 Diode models

 Ideal Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the

forward dynamic
resistance and reverse
current all are
neglected.

43
 Diode models
VF = 0.7V

 Practical Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the forward dynamic

resistance and reverse current all are
neglected.

 Forward current IF is determined using Kirchhoff’s voltage as follows:

44
 Diode Limiters
• Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are used to clip off portions of signal
voltages above or below certain levels.

45
Diode Clampers

46
Zener Diode

Circuit symbol

The diode i–v

characteristic with the
breakdown region shown
in some detail.

SJTU Zhou Lingling 47

 Zener Diodes Cathode (K)
 A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction that is
designed for operation in reverse-
breakdown region
 When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, Anode (A)
its voltage remains almost constant even
though the current changes drastically, and
this is key to the Zener diode operation.
 Ideally, the reverse breakdown has a
constant breakdown voltage. This makes it
useful as a voltage reference, which is its
primary application.

48
 Zener Breakdown Characteristic
 As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the
reverse current(IR) remains extremely
small up to the knee of the curve.

 Reverse current is also called Zener

current(Iz).

 At knee point the breakdown effect

begins, the internal Zener resistance (ZZ)
begins to decrease.

 The reverse current increase rapidly.

 The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage

remains nearly constant.

49
 Zener Diode Impedence
 The zener impedance, ZZ, is the ratio of a +

change in voltage in the breakdown ZZ

region to the corresponding change in +

VZ
–
current: –
VZ Practical model
ZZ 
IZ

What is the zener impedance if the zener diode

voltage changes from 4.79 V to 4.94 V when
the current changes from 5.00 mA to 10.0
mA?


V Z 0
.15V
Z
Z   30 W
IZ 5
.0mA

50
 Zener Regulation
 The ability to keep the reverse voltage constant
across its terminal is the key feature of the Zener
diode.

 It maintains constant voltage over a range of reverse

current values.

 A minimum reverse current IZK must be maintained in

order to keep diode in regulation mode. Voltage
decreases drastically if the current is reduced below
the knee of the curve.

 Above IZM, max current, the Zener may get damaged

permanently.

51
 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage:

As the input voltage changes, the output

voltage remains nearly constant (I < I < I ).
ZK Z ZM

52
 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W

Vin(min) = 10.55V
Vin(max) = 32V

53
 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load

It maintains
voltage a nearly
constant across RL
as long as Zener
current is within
IZK and IZM.

VZ = 12 V,
IZK = 1 mA,
IZM = 50 mA.

54
 Zener Diode Applications

Zeners can also be used as limiters. The back-to-back zeners in this circuit limit
the output to the breakdown voltage plus one diode drop.

+VZ1 + 0.7 V
D1
What are the maximum positive and Vin
0
D2
negative voltages if the zener –VZ1 – 0.7 V
breakdown voltage is 5.6 V?

± 6.3 V

55
 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W, IZM = 1W / 10V = 100mA

56
 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load
 It maintains voltage a nearly constant across RL as long as Zener current is
within IZK and IZM.

57
 Optical Diodes
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Diodes can be
made to emit light electroluminescence) or
sense light.

 When forward biased electrons form n-

region cross the junction and recombines to
holes with the emission of photons.

 Various impurities are added during the

doping process to establish the wavelength
of the emitted light.

 The process is called electroluminescence.

58
 Light Emitting Diodes
 LEDs vary widely in size and brightness – from
small indicating lights and displays to high-
intensity LEDs that are used in traffic signals,
outdoor signs, and general illumination.

 LEDs are very efficient light emitters, and

extremely reliable, so domain of uses getting
wider.

59
 Light Emitting Diodes
o When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the
n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.

• The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to
the energy of visible light.

60
 Digital Images and Pixels
• A digital image is a binary (digital)
representation of a two-dimensional pictorial
data.
• Digital images may have a raster or vector
representation.
• Raster Images defined over a 2D grid of picture
elements, called pixels.
• A pixel is the basic items of a raster image and
include intensity or color value.

Pixels

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
• LCD Panel is based on
– A light valve for each pixel
that turn the light on, off,
or an intermediate level.
• Grid of such light valve
for the LCD display panel.
• A back light and display
enhancement films
create the illumination.
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 LCD-Display
• Applying voltage
to the electrodes
changes the level
of illumination in
each sub-pixel
• The panel is
sandwiched
between
– Front surface
films to enhance
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 Linear Polarized Light
• Light usually
vibrates in all
direction
• A linear polarized
light limit the
vibration to one
direction
• It absorbs the
component of light
that vibrate in all
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 Iodine Based Polarizer
• Is the most common
polarizer Cellulose Triacetate
polyvinyl alcohol film
• It is made by Cellulose Triacetate
– Stretching a cast
polyvinyl alcohol film
(PVA) to align the iodine
in turn.
– Staining it with iodine
polyvinyl alcohol film
– The stained PVA
laminated between two
slices of cellulose
Figures aretriacetate.
curtsy of 3M
 About Liquid Crystal
• Liquid crystal
molecules can move
freely while
maintaining their
orientation.
• It align itself to a
polyimide film to the
inside of a panel glass.
• When the two glass
panels are not aligned
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 Light Path
• The light passes
through the polarizer.
• The voltage applied to
the electrodes
controls the liquid
crystal orientation
• The liquid crystal
orientation controls
the rotation of the
incoming polarized
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 Photo Diode
 A photodiode is a special light
sensitive diode with a clear window
to the pn junction. It is operated with

Reverse current, (I l)
reverse bias. Reverse current
increases with greater incident light.

Dark current
0 Irradiance, H

 The tiny current that is present when the

diode is not exposed to light is called
dark current

68
 Varactor Diode
 A varactor diode is a special purpose p n
diode operated in reverse-bias to form
a voltage-controlled capacitor. The Plate Plate
width of the depletion region increases Dielectric
– VBIAS +
with reverse-bias.

 Varactor diodes are used in tuning

applications. The applied voltage
controls the capacitance and hence the
resonant frequency.

69
 TUNNEL DIODE (Esaki Diode)
• It was introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. EV

• Heavily-doped p-n junction

– Impurity concentration is 1 part in 10^3 as compared to 1
part in 10^8 in p-n junction diode
• Width of the depletion layer is very small
(about 100 A).
• It is generally made up of Ge and GaAs.
• It shows tunneling phenomenon.
• Circuit symbol of tunnel diode is :
 WHAT IS TUNNELING
• Classically, carrier must have energy at least equal to
potential-barrier height to cross the junction .
• But according to Quantum mechanics there is finite
probability that it can penetrate through the barrier for
a thin width.
• This phenomenon is
called tunneling and
hence the Esaki Diode
is know as
Tunnel Diode.
 CHARACTERISTIC OF TUNNEL DIODE
Ip

Ip:- Peak Current

Iv :- Valley Current

Forward Current
Vp:- Peak Voltage
- Ve Resistance Region
Vv:- Valley Voltage
Vf:- Peak Forward
Voltage Iv

Reverse Current Vp Vv Vf
Reverse
voltage Forward Voltage
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

Energy-band diagram of pn junction in thermal equilibrium in which both the n

and p region are degenerately doped.
 AT ZERO BIAS

Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at zero bias.

-Zero current on the I-V diagram;

-All energy states are filled below EF on both sides of the junction;
 AT SMALL FORWARD VOLTAGE

Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a slight forward bias.
-Electrons in the conduction band of the n region are directly opposite to
the empty states in the valence band of the p region.
-So a finite probability that some electrons tunnel directly into the
empty states resulting in forward-bias tunneling current.
 AT MAXIMUM TUNNELING CURENT

Simplified energy-band diagraam and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a forward bias
producing maximum tunneling current.

-The maximum number of electrons in the n region are opposite to

the maximum number of empty states in the p region.
- Hence tunneling current is maximum.
AT DECREASING CURRENT REGION

Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a higher forward
bias producing less tunneling current.

-The forward-bias voltage increases so the number of electrons on the n side,

directly opposite empty states on the p side decreases.
- Hence the tunneling current decreases.
 AT HIGHER FORWARD VOLTAGE

Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a forward bias
for which the diffusion current dominates.

-No electrons on the n side are directly opposite to the empty

states on the p side.
- The tunneling current is zero.
-The normal ideal diffusion current exists in the device.
 AT REVERSE BIAS VOLTAGE

- Electrons in the valence band on the p side are directly opposite to

empty states in the conduction band on the n side.
-Electrons tunnel directly from the p region into the n region.
- The reverse-bias current increases monotonically and rapidly with
reverse-bias voltage.
TUNNEL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
•This is the equivalent
circuit of tunnel diode rs
when biased in negative
resistance region.
•At higher frequencies the Cj -R

series R and L can be

ignored. Ls

•Hence equivalent circuit can be reduced to parallel

combination of junction capacitance and negative
resistance.
 INTRODUCTION:
The SCR is the most important special semiconductor
device. This device is popular for its Forward-Conducting and
Reverse-blocking characteristics.
SCR can be used in high-power devices. For example,
in the central processing unit of the computer, the SCR is used
in switch mode power supply (SMPS).
The DIAC, a combination of two Shockley Diodes, and
the TRIAC, a combination of two SCRs connected
anti-parallelly are important power-control devices. The UJT is
also used as an efficient switching device.
 SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER (SCR)
The silicon-controlled rectifier or semiconductor
controlled rectifier is a two-state device used for efficient power control.

SCR is the parent member of the thyristor family and is

used in high-power electronics.Its constructional features, physical
operation and characteristics are explained in the following sections.
 Constructional Features
The SCR is a four-layer structure, either p–n–p–n or n–p–n–
p, that effectively blocks current through two terminals until it is turned
ON by a small-signal at a third terminal.
The SCR has two states: a high-current low-impedance ON
state and a low-current high-impedance OFF state.
The basic transistor action in a four-layer p–n–p–n
structure is analysed first with only two terminals,and then the third
control input is introduced.
 Physical Operation and
Characteristics:
• The physical operation of the SCR can be explained clearly with
reference to the current–voltage characteristics.
• The forward-bias condition and reverse-bias condition illustrate
the conducting state and the reverse blocking state respectively. Based
on these two states a typical I –V characteristic of the SCR is shown in
Fig. 8-2.
 SCR in Forward Bias:
• There are two different states in which we can examine the SCR in the
forward-biased condition:
(i) The high- impedance or forward-blocking state
(ii) The low-impedance or forward-conducting state
At a critical peak forward voltage Vp, the SCR switches from the blocking state
to the conducting state, as shown in Fig. 8-2.
• A positive voltage places junction j1 and j3 under forward-bias, and the
centre junction j2 under reverse-bias.
• The for ward voltage in the blocking state appears across the reverse-
biased junc tion j2 as the applied voltage V is increased. The voltage from the
anode A to cathode C, as shown in Fig. 8-1, is very small after switching to the
forward-conducting state, and all three junctions are forward-biased. The
junction j2 switches from reverse-bias to forward-bias..
 SCR in Reverse Bias:
 In the reverse-blocking state the junctions j1 and j3 are reverse-biased,
and j2 is forward-biased.
 The supply of electrons and holes to junction j2 is restricted, and due to the
thermal generation of electron–hole pairs near junctions j1 and j2 the device current is
a small saturation current.
 In the reverse blocking condition the current remains small until avalanche
breakdown occurs at a large reverse-bias of several thousand volts.
 An SCR p–n–p–n structure is equivalent to one p–n–p transistor and one n–
p–n transistor sharing some common terminals.

 Collector current I C 1 = α1i + I CO 1 having a transfer ratio α 1 for the p–n–p.

 Collector current I C 2 =α2i + I CO 2 having a transfer ratio a2 for the n–p–n.
 ICO1 and ICO 2 stand for the respective collector-saturation currents.
I C 1 = α 1i + I CO 1 = I B 2 ………………. (8-1)
I C 2 = α 2 i + I CO 2 = I B 1 ……………… (8-2)
SCR in Reverse Bias:
 SCR in Reverse Bias:
• The total current through the SCR is the sum of iC1 and iC2:
• I C 1 + I = i ………………..(8-3)
• Substituting the values of collector current from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) in Eq. (8-3) we
get:
• i (α1 + α2) + I CO 1 + I CO 2 = i
• i = (I CO 1 + I CO 2 ) /(1- α1 + α2) ………………..(8-4)
• Case I: When (α1 + α2) → 1, then the SCR current i → infinite.
• As the sum of the values of alphas tends to unity, the SCR current i increases rapidly.
The derivation is no
• longer valid as (α1 + α2) equals unity.
• Case II: When (α1 + α2 → 0, i.e., when the summation value of alphas goes to zero,
the SCR resultant current can be expressed as:
• i = I CO 1 + I CO 2 …………………………….(8-5)
• The current, i, passing through the SCR is very small. It is the combined collector-
saturation currents of the two equivalent transistors as long as the sum (α1 + α2) is
very small or almost near zero.
 I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
• Forward-Blocking State:
• When the device is biased in the forward-blocking state, as shown in Fig. 8-
4(a), the applied voltage appears primarily across the reverse-biased junction j2. Al
though the junctions j1 and j3 are forward-biased, the current is small.
 I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
• Forward-Conducting State of the SCR:
As the value of (α1 + α2 ) approaches unity through one of the
mechanisms ,many holes injected at j1 survive to be swept across j2 into p2.
 This process helps feed the recombination in p2 and support the injection
of holes into n2. In a similar manner, the transistor action of electrons injected at j3
and collected at j2 supplies electrons for n1.
 The current through the device can be much larger.
 Reverse-Blocking State of the SCR:
• The SCR in reverse-biased condition allows almost negligible
current to flow through it. This is shown in Fig. 8-4(c).
• In the reverse-blocking state of the SCR, a small saturation
current flows from anode to cathode. Holes will flow from the gate into p2, the base of
the n–p–n transistor, due to positive gate current.
• The required gate current for turn-on is only a few milli-amperes,
therefore, the SCR can be turned on by a very small amount of power in the gate.
 I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
• As shown in Fig. 8-5, if the gate
current is 0 mA, the critical voltage is
higher, i.e., the SCR requires more voltage
to switch to the conducting state.
• But as the value of gate
current increases, the criticalI–V Characteristics of the SCR:
voltage
becomes lower, and the SCR switches
to the conducting state at a lower voltage.
• At the higher gate current IG2,
the SCR switches faster than at the lower
gate current IG1,
because IG2 > IG1.
 Semiconductor-controlled switch
(SCS):
• Few SCRs have two gate leads,
G2 attached to p2 and G1
attached to n1, as shown in Fig. 8-6.
This configuration is called the
semiconductor-controlled switch
(SCS).
• The SCS, biased in the
forward-blocking state, can be
switched to the conducting state by
a negative pulse at the anode gate
n1 or by a positive current pulse
applied to the cathode gate at p2.
 Simple Applications:
• The SCR is the most important member of the thyristor family. The
SCR is a capable power device as it can handle thousands of amperes and volts.
• Generally the SCR is used in many applications such as in high power electronics,
switches, power-control and conversion mode.
• It is also used as surge protector.
• Static Switch: The SCR is used as a switch for power-switching in various control
circuits.
• Power Control: Since the SCR can be turned on externally, it can be used to regulate
the amount of power delivered to a load.
• Surge Protection: In an SCR circuit, when the voltage rises beyond the threshold
value, the SCR is turned on to dissipate the charge or voltage quickly.
• Power Conversion: The SCR is also used for high-power conversion and regulation.
This includes conversion of power source from ac to ac, ac to dc and dc to ac.
 TRIODE AC SWITCH (TRIAC):
• The term TRIAC is derived by combining the first three letters of
the word “TRIODE” and the word “AC”.
• A TRIAC is capable of conducting in both the directions. The
TRIAC, is thus, a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is widely
used for the control of power in ac circuits.
 Constructional Features:
Depending upon the polarity of the gate pulse and the biasing
conditions, the main four-layer structure that turns ON by a regenerative process
could be one of p1 n1, p2 n2, p1 n1 p2 n3, or p2 n1 p1 n4, as shown in Fig. 8-8.
 Advantages of the TRIAC:
• The TRIAC has the following advantages:

(i) They can be triggered with positive- or negative-polarity voltage.

(ii) They need a single heat sink of slightly larger size.
(iii) They need a single fuse for protection, which simplifies their construction.
(iv) In some dc applications, the SCR has to be connected with a parallel diode for
protection against reverse voltage, whereas a TRIAC may work without a diode, as
safe breakdown in either direction is possible.
 Disadvantages of the TRIAC:
• The TRIAC has the following disadvantages:

(i) TRIACs have low dv/dt ratings compared to SCRs.

(ii) Since TRIACs can be triggered in either direction, the trigger circuits with
TRIACs needs careful consideration.
(iii) Reliability of TRIACs is less than that of SCRs.
Simple Applications of the TRIAC:
• The TRIAC as a bidirectional thyristor has various
applications. Some of the popular applications of the
TRIAC are as follows:

(i) In speed control of single-phase ac series or universal motors.

(ii) In food mixers and portable drills.
(iii) In lamp dimming and heating control.
(iv) In zero-voltage switched ac relay.
 DIODE AC SWITCH (DIAC):
• The DIAC is a combination of two diodes. Diodes being unidirectional
devices, conduct current only in one direction.
• If bidirectional (ac) operation is desired, two Shockley diodes may be
joined in parallel facing different directions to form the DIAC.
 Constructional Features:
• The construction of DIAC looks like a transistor but there are major differences.
• They are as follows:
(i) All the three layers, p–n–p or n–p–n, are equally doped in the DIAC, whereas
in the BJT there is a gradation of doping. The emitter is highly doped, the
collector is lightly doped, and the base is moderately doped.
• (ii) The DIAC is a two-terminal diode as opposed to the BJT, which is a three-
terminal device.
 Physical Operation and
Characteristics:
• The main characteristics are of the DIAC are as follows:
(i) Break over voltage
(ii) Voltage symmetry
(iii) Break-back voltage
(iv) Break over current
(v) Lower power dissipation

• Although most DIACs have symmetric switching voltages, asymmetric

DIACs are also available. Typical DIACs have a power dissipations ranging from
1/2 to 1 watt.
I-V characteristics of the DIAC:
 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT):
• The uni-junction transistor is a three-terminal single-junction device.
The switching voltage of the UJT can be easily varied.
• The UJT is always operated as a switch in oscillators, timing circuits and
in SCR/TRIAC trigger circuits.
 Constructional Features:
• The UJT structure consists of a lightly doped n-type silicon bar provided
with ohmic contacts on either side.

• The two end connections are called base B1 and base B2. A small heavily
doped p-region is alloyed into one side of the bar. This p-region is the UJT emitter (E)
that forms a p–n junction with the bar.
• Between base B1 and base B2, the resistance of the n-type bar called
inter-base resistance (RB ) and is in the order of a few kilo ohm.

• This inter-base resistance can be broken up into two resistances—the

resistance from B1 to the emitter is RB1 and the resistance from B2 to the emitter is
RB 2.
• Since the emitter is closer to B2 the value of RB1is greater than RB2.
• Total resistance is given by:
RB = RB1 + RB2
 Equivalent circuit for UJT:
• The VBB source is
generally fixed and provides a
constant voltage from B2 to B1.

• The UJT is normally

operated with both B2 and E
positive biased relative to B1.

• B1 is always the UJT

reference terminal and all voltages
are measured relative to B1 . VEE is
a variable voltage source.
UJT V–I characteristic curves:
 ON State of the UJT Circuit:
• As VEE increases, the UJT stays in the OFF state until VE approaches the
peak point value V P. As VE approaches VP the p–n junction becomes forward-
biased and begins to conduct in the opposite direction.
• As a result IE becomes positive near the peak point P on the VE - IE
curve. When VE exactly equals VP the emitter current equals IP .

• At this point holes from the heavily doped emitter are injected into
the n-type bar, especially into the B1 region. The bar, which is lightly doped, offers
very little chance for these holes to recombine.

• The lower half of the bar becomes replete with additional current
carriers (holes) and its resistance RB is drastically reduced; the decrease in BB1
causes Vx to drop.
• This drop, in turn, causes the diode to become more forward-biased
and IE increases even further.
 OFF State of the UJT Circuit:
• When a voltage VBB is applied across the two base terminals B1 and
B2, the potential of point p with respect to B1 is given by:
VP =[VBB/ (RB1 +RB2)]*RB1=η*RB1
• η is called the intrinsic stand off ratio with its typical value lying
between 0.5 and 0.8.

• The VEE source is applied to the emitter which is the p-side. Thus, the
emitter diode will be reverse-biased as long as VEE is less than Vx. This is OFF
state and is shown on the VE - IE curve as being a very low current region.

• In the OFF the UJT has a very high resistance between E and B1, and IE
is usually a negligible reverse leakage current. With no IE, the drop across RE is
zero and the emitter voltage equals the source voltage.
 UJT Ratings:
• Maximum peak emitter current : This represents the maximum allowable value of
a pulse of emitter current.

• Maximum reverse emitter voltage :This is the maxi mum reverse-bias that the
emitter base junction B2 can tolerate before breakdown occurs.

• Maximum inter base voltage :This limit is caused by the maxi mum power that the
n-type base bar can safely dissipate.

• Emitter leakage current :This is the emitter current which flows when VE is less
than Vp and the UJT is in the OFF state.
 Applications:
• The UJT is very popular today mainly due to its high switching speed.

• A few select applications of the UJT are as follows:

(i) It is used to trigger SCRs and TRIACs
(ii) It is used in non-sinusoidal oscillators
(iii) It is used in phase control and timing circuits
(iv) It is used in saw tooth generators
(v) It is used in oscillator circuit design
 POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• 1. A thyristor is a multilayer p–n terminal electronic device used for bi-stable
switching.
• 2. The SCR has two states:
(a) High-current low-impedance ON state
(b) Low-current OFF state
• 3. Latching current is defined as a minimum value of anode current which is a
must in order to attain the turn-on process required to maintain conduction
when the gate signal is removed.

• 4. Holding current is defined as a minimum value of anode current below which

it must fall for turning off the thyristor..

• 5. The TRIAC is a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is used

extensively for the control of power in ac circuits.
• 6. The DIAC is an n–p–n or p–n–p structure with a uniformly doped layer.
 POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• 7. Applications of the UJT:
(a) As trigger mechanism in the SCR and the TRIAC
(b) As non-sinusoidal oscillators
(c) In saw-tooth generators
(d) In phase control and timing circuits

• 8. The UJT operation can be stated as follows:

(a) When the emitter diode is reverse-biased, only a very small emitter
current flows. Under this condition RB1 is at its normal high-value. This is the
OFF state of the UJT.
(b) When the emitter diode becomes forward-biased RB1 drops to a very
low value so that the total resistance between E and B1 becomes very low,
allowing emitter current to flow readily. This is the ON state.
 University Questions

1.Draw the energy band diagram of a p-n junction under open circuit
condition and derive the expression for contact potential.
2. The voltage across a silicon diode at room temperature is 0.7 V when 2 mA
current flows through it. If the voltage increases to 0.75 V, calculate the diode
current. Assume VT = 26 mV.
3.Define transition capacitance in a diode and derive the expression for it.
4.The reverse saturation current of a silicon PN junction diode is 10
µA.Calculate the diode current for the forward-bias voltage of 0.6 V at 25 0C.
5. Explain V-I characteristics of a tunnel diode and write its applications. (
6. Determine the diode current at 20 0C for a silicon diode with I0 = 50 nA
and applied forward bias of 0.6 V. Repeat the same for 30 0C and comment
on the results.
6.Draw Zener diode Voltage regulator.
7.Explain the following terms (i) Static resistance (ii) Dynamic
resistance (iii) Junction resistance (iv)Reverse resistance of a Diode
with suitable figures.
8. Draw the circuit diagram of SCR and explain its operation along
with its characteristics
9.Explain how the zener diode is used for regulation purpose.
10. Define Diffusion capacitance and Transition capacitance of a PN
junction diode
 BITS
Q1. A crystal diode has ………
one pn junction
two pn junctions
three pn junctions
none of the above
Answer : 1
Q2. A crystal diode has forward resistance of the order of ……………
kΩ
Ω
MΩ
none of the above
Answer : 2
Q3. If the arrow of crystal diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar, then diode is …………..
biased.
forward
reverse
either forward or reverse
none of the above
Answer : 1
Q4. The reverse current in a diode is of the order of ……………….
kA
mA
μA
A
Answer : 3
Q5. The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is about …………………
2.5 V
3V
10 V
0.7 V
Answer : 4
Q6. A crystal diode is used as ……………
an amplifier
a rectifier
an oscillator
a voltage regulator
Answer : 2
Q7. The d.c. resistance of a crystal diode is ………….. its a.c. resistance
the same as
more than
less than
none of the above
Answer : 3
Q8. An ideal crystal diode is one which behaves as a perfect ……….. when forward
biased.
conductor
insulator
resistance material
none of the above
Answer : 1
Q9. The ratio of reverse resistance and forward resistance of a germanium crystal diode
is about ………….
1:1
100 : 1
1000 : 1
40,000 : 1
Answer : 4