Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer

Department of Chemical Engineering

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
 Outlines

4.1 　 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

4.2 　 Conduction Heat Transfer
4.3 　 Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere
4.4 　 Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors
4.5 　 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes
4.6 　 Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection
4.7 　 Natural Convection Heat Transfer
4.8 Boiling and Condensation
4.9 Heat Exchangers
4.10 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer
4.11 Advanced Radiation Heat-Transfer Principles
4.12 Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids
4.13 Special Heat-Transfer Coefficients
4.14 Dimensional Analysis in Heat Transfer
2
 p.235
4.1A Steady-State Heat Transfer

Alcohol distillation Drying of lumber Burning of fuel Evaporation

• Heat transfer occurs because of a temperature-difference driving force and

heat flows from the high-to the low-temperature region.
Heat Balance:

Heat transport and Fourier’s law

3
 p.235-236
4.1A Steady-State Heat Transfer
Heat transport and Fourier’s law

Assuming the rate of transfer of heat occurs only conduction:

Unsteady-state balance for heat transfer in control volume

4
 p.236
4.1A Steady-State Heat Transfer
Unsteady-state balance for heat transfer in control volume

(rate of accumulation of heat) = (rate of heat in) – (rate of heat out) + (rate of
generation of heat)
rate of heat generated
per unit volume
Assuming:
no heat generation
Steady-state (no accumulation)

5
 p.236-237
4.1B Basic Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

 Conduction : the transfer of heat can be conducted through solids,

liquids, and gases.
 Convection : the transfer of heat by bulk transport and mixing of
macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler portions of a gas
or liquid.
6
 Radiation : the transfer of heat through space by electromagnetic waves.
 p.237
4.1C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

transfer process
Momentum transfer
Heat transfer
Mass transfer

Fourier’s law:

Heat flux (W/m2) Temperature gradient in the x-dir

7
 p.238
4.1C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Conversion factor of k :
1 btu/h. ft. oF = 4.1365 x 10-3 cal/s. cm. oC.
1 btu/h. ft. oF = 1.73073 W/m. K
Conversion factor of heat flux and power :

1 btu/h. ft2 = 3.1546 W/m2

1 btu/h = 0.29307 W

Steady-state heat transfer through a flat wall of cross-sectional area, A, constant

8
 p.238
4.1C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Ex. 4.1.-1
Calculate the heat loss per m2 of surface area for an insulating wall composed of
25.4 mm-thick fiber insulating board, where the inside temperature is 352.7 K
and the outside temperature is 297.1 K.
Solution
From App. A.3-15 p.986
k is 0.048 W/m. K

9
4.1D Thermal Conductivity p.238-239

The thermal conductivity of different materials have been

determined by experimental measurements.

For liquid, the k varies moderately

with temperature can be
expressed as a linear eq.:

a and b are empirical constants

App A.3 thermal conductivities for inorganic and organic materials

App A.4 thermal conductivities for food and biological materials 10
 p.240
4.1E Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Flowing fluid at Tf Heated surface at Tw

Convection : Newton’s Law Cooling

Tf= Tb (bulk of temperature)

f(system geometry, fluid properties,
flow velocity, different temperature)

11
 p.240-241
4.1E Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient

In many cases, h is often called a film coefficient when the fluid flows past a
surface, the thin layer or film of fluid appears in the wall.

1 btu/h. ft2. oF = 5.6783 W/m2. K

12
 p. 241
4.2A Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall

x1 x2
For the k and A are constant:

For the k is not constant:

13
 p. 242
4.2A Conduction Heat Transfer

driving force
Resistance (K/W, h. oF/btu)

14
 p. 242
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

1-D (Radial) Steady-State Heat Conduction Through Hollow Cylinder

Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer r2 of length L of a material having
constant conductivity (k).

Inner surface of cylinder is at T1 and outer at T2.

Conduction equation for 1-D (radial) heat flow (without gen) will be:

Integrating Eq.
15
 p. 242
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

or

Integrating Eq.

Substituting Eq.

16
 p. 242-243
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

or

Heat Flow Rate:

17
 p. 243
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

Ex. 4.2.-1
A thicked-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber having an inside radius
of 5 mm and an outside radius of 20 mm is being used as a temporary
cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall
temperature is 274.9 K. The outside surface temperature is 297.1 K. A total
of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the cooling coil. How many
m of tubing are needed?
Solution
From App A.3-15 p.986
assume the k value is applicable at temperature
ranges from 274.9 K to 297.1 K.

assume length of tubing is 1 m

18
 p. 244
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

Since 15.2 W is removed for 1 m of length of tube, the length needed is

Note: the thermal conductivity of rubber is quite small, the liquid film resistances in this
case are neglected.

19
 p. 244
4.2C Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere
Fourier's Law in radial coordinates
r2
(1)
r1

The cross-sectional area to the heat flow is

(2)

Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and integrating:

20
 p. 244-245
4.3A Conduction Through Solids in Series

The temperature profiles in materials A, B, and C are shown as follows, the heat flow (q)
must be the same in each layer.

Rearrange the Eq.

Total resistance
21
 p. 245
4.3A Conduction Through Solids in Series

Ex. 4.3.-1
A cold-storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a middle layer
of 101.6 mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2 mm of concrete. The wall surface
temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room and 297.1 K at the outside surface of
concrete. Use conductivities from App. A.3 for pine, 0.151; for cork board 0.0433; and
for concrete 0.762 W/m. K. Calculate the heat loss in W for 1 m2 and the temperature
at the interface between the wood and cork board.
Solution
A = Pine
B = Cork board
C = Concrete
A B C

22
 p. 246
4.3A Conduction Through Solids in Series

negative sign indicate that the heat flows from outside into in

The interface temperature, T2 between pine wood and cork board,

or

23
 p. 246
4.3B Multilayer Cylinders

Heat transfer occurs through multilayers of

cylinders

24
 p. 247
4.3B Multilayer Cylinders

Ex. 4.3.-2
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (A) having a k=21.63 W/m. K with dimensions of
0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 m OD is covered with a 0.0254 m thick layer of an insulation (B) ,
k= 0.2423 W/m K. The inside-wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the outside
surface of the insulation is at 310.8 K. For a 0.305 m length of pipe, calculate the heat
loss and also the temperature at the interface between the metal and the insulation.
Solution

r1
T1 r2
T2
T3 r3

25
 p. 248
4.3B Multilayer Cylinders

26
 p. 248
4.3C Conduction Through Materials in Parallel

27
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall p. 249
Coefficients
In practical situations, the surface temperatures (Tw) are difficult to predict. Consider the
plane wall:

28
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall p. 249
Coefficients
The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and convection is expressed

where:

29
 p. 249-250
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall
Coefficients

where:
the inside area of the metal tube

the log mean area of the metal tube

the outside area of the metal tube

30
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall p. 250
Coefficients

The overall heat-transfer coefficient, U, for the cylinder may be based on the inside Ai
area or outside Ao are

31
 p. 250
Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Coefficients

Ex. 4.3.-3
Saturated steam at 267 oF is flowing inside a ¾ in. steel pipe having an ID of 0.824 in. and
an OD of 1.050 in. The pipe is insulated with 1.5 in. of insulation on the outside. The
convective coefficient for the inside steal surface of the pipe is estimated as h i=1000
btu/h.ft2. oF, and the convective coefficient on the outside of the lagging is estimated as
ho= 2 but/h.ft2 oF. The mean thermal conductivity of the metal is 45 W/m.K or 26 btu/h.
ft. oF and 0.064 W/m. K or 0.037 btu/hft. oF for the insulation.
(a)Calcultae the heat loss for 1 ft of pipe using resistances if the surrounding air is at 80
o
F.
(b) Repeat, using the overall Ui based on the inside area Ai.
Solution

32
 p. 250-251
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall
Coefficients

inside convection

outside convection

33
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall p. 251
Coefficients
(a)

(b)

34
 p. 251-252
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

Heat is generated inside the conducting medium, chemical reaction, biological

activity, etc. The heats of generation can be as high as 0.3 to 0.6 W/kg.

Heat Generation in plane wall

q q

To

Tw Tw

L L
0

35
 p. 252
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

In + Generation = Out + Accumulation

By Fourier’s law:

36
 p. 252
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

37
 p. 252
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

Integrating the Eq.

Integrating again the Eq.

38
 p. 253
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

Heat Generation in Cylinder

Assume:
•Heat flows only radially
•The ends are neglected or insulated
•Constant thermal conductivity
•Steady state

In + Generation = Out + Accumulation To

Tw Tw
q q

R R

39
 p. 253
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

By Fourier’s law:

40
 p. 253
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

Integrating the Eq.

Integrating again the Eq.

41
 p. 253
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation

Ex. 4.3.-4

Solution

I 2 R  watts  q R 2 L
(200) 2 (0.126)  q  (0.001268) 2 (0.91)
q  1.096  10 9 W/m 3

q R 2
To    Tw
4k
 To  441.7 K
42
 p. 254
4.3F Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder

q
T1  T2 T2  To T T
q   1 o
Rins Ro Rins  Ro

insulation where ln(r2 / r1 )

Rins 
pipe
2 kL
T1 T2 To
1 1
r2 ho Ro  
r1
 2 r2 L  ho Ao

43
 p. 254
Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder

q qmax
circular pipe:-
k
rcr 
ho
sphere:-
2k
rcr 
rcr r ho

r2 rcr 
insulation
 q  eg. large pipes
r2 rcr 
insulation
 q  eg. small electrical wire

44
 p. 254
4.3F Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder

Ex. 4.3.-5
An electric wire having a diameter of 1.5mm and covered with a plastic insulation
(thickness = 2.5mm) is exposed to air at 300K and ho = 20 W/m2.K. The insulation has a k of
0.4 W/m.K. It is assumed that the wire surface temperature is constant at 400 K and is not
affected by the covering.
(a)Calculate the value of the critical radius
(b)Calculate the heat loss per m of wire length with no insulation
(c)Repeat (b) for the insulation present.
Solution
air at T2

k  0.4 W/m.K

T2 electric wire plastic T2  400 K

1.5 mm
cover To  300 K
2.5 mm
To

45
 p. 255
4.3F Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder

k 0.4
(a)  r2  cr    0.020 m  20 mm
ho 20
(b) r1  1.5 / 2 10 3  0.75  10 3 m, A  2r2 L
q  ho A(T2  To )
 20(  0.75 103  1)(400  300)
 9.42 W

(c) with insulation, r2  (2.5  1.5 / 2) 10 3  3.25 10 3 m

T2t 2  To
q
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1

2 kL ho Ao adding insulation greatly
400  300 increases the heat loss

ln(3.25 10 3 / 0.75 103 ) 1

2 (0.4)(1) 20(2  3.25 10 3 1)
 32.98 W

46
 Homework

CJG means Geankoplis text

CJG 4.1-2, 4.2-2, 4.2-4, 4.2-5, 4.3-1, 4.3-3,4.3-7

47
 p. 256
4.4A Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors

2-D Steady state conduction

• The 2-D conduction is occurring in most cases. Analytical

solutions are not available only numerical method is applicable
to solve such problems.
• Another approximate method is the graphical method for
heat-transfer rate at isothermal boundaries.
• The 2-D graphical method is based on the heat-flux lines and
isotherm lines of curvilinear squares.

48
 p. 256
4.4A Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors

General steps to use the graphical method:

1.Draw a model to scale of the 2-D solid. Give the label.
2.Select a number of equal temperature subdivisions between the isothermal
boundaries.

N=4
1
2 N=4
3
4

49
 p. 257
4.4A Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors

50
 p. 257
4.4A Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors

Ex. 4.4.-1

Solution

51
 p. 257
4.4B Shape Factors in Conduction

S is conduction shape factor

52
 p. 258
4.4B Shape Factors in Conduction

53
 p. 259
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes

q is the heat-transfer rate (W)

h is the convective coefficient (W/m2. K)
A is the area (m2)
T is the bulk or average temperature (K)
Tw is the temperature of the wall in contact with the fluid (K) 54
 p. 260
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes

h (convective coefficient or film coefficient)

Laminar flow lower heat-transfer coefficient

Turbulent flow greater heat-transfer coefficient

Classification of convective heat transfer:

•Free or natural convection (fluid moved by temperature difference/density

difference)

•Forced convection (fluid moved by mechanicals such as fan, propeller or

pump)

55
 p. 260
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes

h (film coefficient) are affected:

•Physical properties of the fluid
•The type and velocity of flow
•Temperature difference
•The geometry of the specific system

Parameters in convective heat transfer:

1. Momentum diffusivity

2. Thermal diffusivity

56
 p. 260
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes

3. Prandtl number

4. Nusselt number

where:

h : heat transfer coefficient

D : pipe diameter
k : thermal conductivity

57
 p. 260
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes
solid Heat transfer by convection

Heat transfer by conduction

conduction

convection
58
 p. 260
4.5B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Inside a Pipe

59
 p. 260-261
4.5B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Inside a Pipe

For laminar flow

where:

60
 p. 261
4.5B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Inside a Pipe

where:

61
 p. 261-262
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

For turbulent flow

where:

For air at 1 atm SI

English

where:

hL (W/ m2. K)

62
 p. 262
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

For water at T = 4 - 105 oC

SI

English

For organic liquids

SI

English

63
 p. 262
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

Ex. 4.5.-1

Solution
ho  hsteam

Tave  477.6 K
air
25.4 mm v  7.62 m/s
Tbi P  206.8 kPa
Tbo
Steam, Tw  488.7 K

64
 p. 262
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

Ex. 4.5.-1

Solution
From App. A3 physical properties of air at 477.6 K:

From App. A3 physical properties of air at 488.7 K:

65
 p. 263
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

Turbulent flow

For turbulent flow

66
 p. 263
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe

67
 p. 263
4.5D Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow Inside a Pipe

G = mass velocity of fluid (kg/s.m2) = 

68
 p. 264
4.5E Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Noncircular Conduits

For an annular space,

For other geometries, an equivalent diameter can also be used.

69
 p. 264
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Ex. 4.5.-2

Solution

70
 p. 264
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

71
 p. 264
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

For turbulent flow

(a)

72
 p. 264-265
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

(b) For 0.305 m pipe:

The resistances are:

73
 p. 265
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Close enough

74
 p. 265
Heat-Transfer Coefficient

(c)

75
 p. 265
4.5F Entrance-Region Effect on Heat-Transfer Coefficient

• Near the entrance of a pipe where the fluid is being heated

• The temperature profile is not fully developed
• h is greater than the fully-developed h L for turbulent flow

76
 p. 266
Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient

• Liquid metals are used as heat-transfer fluid over a wide temperature

range at relatively low pressures.
• Used in nuclear reactors
• The high heat-transfer coefficients are due to the very high thermal
conductivities, low Prandtl numbers.
• High thermal conductivity is more important than the convection effects.

Turbulent flow with uniform heat flux

77
 p. 266
4.5G Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Ex. 4.5.-3

Solution
L?

Tbi  500 K liquid metal

Tbo  505 K Di  0.05 m
m  4 kg/s

Tw  Tbm  30 K

78
 p. 266
4.5G Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Ex. 4.5.-3

Solution
Ai  Di L

Tbm
Tw  Tbm  30 K

q
Tw


q  hA Tw  Tbmean   m c p  Tbo  Tbi   h or c
79
 p. 266
4.5G Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient

80
 p. 267
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

Thi
Tho
Thi Tho T1
Tco Tci Tco T2

Tci
countercurrent flow

Thi
Thi Tho Tho
T1
Tci Tco T2
Tco
Tci
cocurrent parallel flow
81
 p. 268
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

For countercurrent flow

where

82
 p. 268-269
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

Ex. 4.5.-4

Solution
(a) countercurrent flow

371.9 K  Thi
oil, m  3630 kg/h c 
p oil  2.3 kJ/kg.K
T1 Tho  349.7 K c 
p water  4.187 kJ/kg.K
Tco
U i  340 W/m 2 .K
T2
Ai  ?
Tci  288.6 K

water, m  1450 kg/h

83
 p. 269
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

q   m c p  h  Tho  Thi  q   m c p  c  Tco  Tci 

  3630(2.3)(371.9  349.7) / 3600 51490  1450(4.187)(Tco  288.6)
 51490 W Tco  319.1 K

T1  371.9  319.1  52.8 K

T2  349.7  288.6  61.1 K

T1  T2 61.1  52.8

Tlm    56.9 K
 T   61.1 
ln 1  ln 
 T2   52.8 

q  U i Ai Tlm
51490  340 Ai (56.9)
Ai  2.66 m 2
84
 p. 269
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

(b) parallel flow

371.9 K Thi
Tho 349.7K
T1
T2
Tco 319.1K
288.6 K Tci

T1  T2 83.3  30.6

T1  349.7  319.1  30.6 K Tlm    52.7 K
 T1   83.3 
T2  371.9  288.6  83.3 K 
ln 

ln  
 T2   30.6 
q  U i Ai Tlm
51490  340 Ai (52.7)
Ai  2.87 m 2
This is a larger area than for counterflow. This occurs because counterflows gives
larger temperature driving forces.
85
 p. 269
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

Ex. 4.5.-5
A hydrocarbon oil at 150oF enters inside a pipe with an inside diameter of
0.0303 ft and a length of 15 ft with a flow rate of 80 Ibm/h. The inside pipe
surface is assumed constant at 350oF since steam is condensing outside the
pipe wall and has a very large heat-transfer coefficient. The properties of the
oil are cpm= 0.5 btu/Ibm.oF and km = 0.083 btu/h.ft.oF. The viscosity of the oil
varies with temperature as follows: 150oF, 6.50 cp; 200oF, 5.05 cp; 250oF, 3.80
cp; 300oF, 2.82 cp; 350oF, 1.95cp. Predict the heat-transfer coefficient and the
oil outlet temperature, Tbo
Solution
15 ft

Tbi  150 o F
Tbo  ? 0.0303 ft
c 
p oil  0.5 btu/Ibm.o F
oil m  80 Ibm/h k m  0.083 btu/h.ft.o F

D 2 Tw  350 o F
Ax 
4
86
 p. 270
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

Assume value if Tbo  250 o F

250  150
Tbmean   200 o F
2
 2.4191 Ib/ft.h 
  5.05cp    12.23 Ib/ft.h
 1cp 

Dm cp
N Re  N Pr 
Ax k
0.0303(80) 0.5(12.23)
 
  0.083
12.23  0.03032 
4   73.7
 275.5( 2100)

D  0.0303 
N Re N Pr  275.5(73.7)   41
L  15 
87
 p. 270
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

1 0.14
hD  D    3
N Nu   1.86 N Re N Pr   b 
k  L   w 
0.14
h(0.0303) 1
 12.23 
 1.86 41 3  
0.083  1 .95  2 .4191 
h  20.1 btu/h.ft 2 .o F

 We have to check the assumption we make for the temperature again.

q  m c pm  Tbo  Tbi   80.0(0.5) Tbo  150

q  ha ATa
Tbi  Tbo  150  Tbo 
Ta  Tw    350    275  0.5Tbo
2  2 

88
 p. 270
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference

q  m c pm  Tbo  Tbi   ha ATa

80.0(0.5) Tbo  150  275  0.5Tbo
Tbo  255 o F

This is higher than the assumed value of 250 o F. For the second trial, the mean bulk temperature
of the boil would be (150  255)/2 or 202.5 o F. The new viscosity is 5.0 cp compared with 5.05 for
first trial. Hence, the outlet temperature of T1  255 o F is correct.

89
 Homework

CJG means Geankoplis text

CJG 4.3-10, 4.3-14, 4.5-3, 4.5-4, 4.5-6, 4.5-8

90
4.6A Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in p. 271
Forced Convection

• Generally, heat transfer is occurring between the fluid and the immersed
bodies of solid (spheres, tubes, plates) only.
• The heat flux is dependent on the geometry of the body, the position on
the body (front, side, back, etc), the flow rate, and the fluid properties.
The average heat-transfer coefficient on the immersed bodies

C and m are constants depend on the various configurations

The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature

91
 p. 271
4.6B Flow Parallel to Flat Plate

0 L

0.5
1 N Re  3  10 5
N Nu  0.664 N Re N Pr 3
N Pr  0.7
Laminar flow

1 N Re  3  10 5
0.8 Turbulent flow
N Nu  0.0366 N Re N Pr 3 N Pr  0.7

92
 p. 272
4.6B Flow Parallel to Flat Plate

Ex. 4.6.-1

A smooth, flat, thin fin of copper extending out from a tube is 51 mm by 51 mm square. Its
temperature is approximately uniform at 82.2 oC. Cooling air at 15.6oC and 1 atm abs flows
parallel to the fin at a velocity of 12.2 m/s.
a) For laminar flow, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, h
b) If the leading edge of the fin is rough so that all of the boundary layer o film next to the
fin is rough so that alls o the boundary layer or film next to the fin is completely turbulent,
calculate h
Solution
q Tw  82.2 o C

air, v  12.2 m/s

Tbi  15.6 o C
P  1 atm 51 mm

51 mm

93
 p. 272
4.6B Flow Parallel to Flat Plate

The fluid properties will be evaluated at the film temperature:

(a) Tw  Tb 82.2  15.6
Tf    48.9 o C  49 o C
2 2
From Appendix A.3, at T f  49 o C, L
N Re 
  1.95 10 5 Pa.s 
b

N Pr  0.704 51 10 3 (12.2)(1.097)


k  0.028 W/m.K 1.95 10 5
  1.097 kg/m 3  3.49  10 4 ( 3  105 )

N Nu 
hL 0.5
1
 0.664 N Re N Pr 3 q  hA Tw  Tbm 
k  60.7(5110 6 ) 82.2  15.6
h(51 10 3 )
1
 0.664(3.49  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.704) 3  10.51 W
0.028
h  60.7 W/m 2 .K

94
 p. 272
4.6B Flow Parallel to Flat Plate

(b)

95
 p. 272
4.6C Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow

Velocity is the undisturbed free stream velocity approaching the cylinder

96
 p. 273
4.6D Flow Past Single Sphere

1
Limitations
0.5
N Nu  2  0.60 N Re N Pr 3
N Re  1 to 70000
N Pr  0.6 to 400

97
 p. 273
4.6D Flow Past Single Sphere

Ex. 4.6.-2
Using same condition as Example 4.6-1, where air at 1 atm abs pressure and
15.6oC is flowing at velocity of 12.2 m/s, predict the average heat-transfer
coefficient for air flowing by a sphere having a diameter of 51mm and an
average surface temperature of 82.2oC. Compare this with the value of h =
77.2 W/m2.K for the flat plate in turbulent flow.
Solution
Tw  Tb 82.2  15.6
Tf    48.9 o C  49 o C
Tw  82.2 o C 2 2
From Appendix A.3, at T f  49 o C,

51 mm b  1.95 10 5 Pa.s

N Pr  0.704
k  0.028 W/m.K
  1.097 kg/m 3
98
 p. 273
4.6D Flow Past Single Sphere

L
N Re 

51 10 3 (12.2)(1.097)

1.95  10 5
 3.49  10 4 ( 3  105 )

hD 0.5
1
N Nu   2  0.60 N Re N Pr 3
k
1
h(51  10 3 )
 2  0.60(3.49  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.704) 3
0.028
h  56.1 W/m 2 .K

99
 p. 273
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

• Many types of commercial heat exchangers are constructed with multiple

rows of tubes
• An example is gas heater in which a hot fluid inside the tubes heats a gas
passing over the outside of the tubes.

100
 p. 273
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

N=3

101
 p. 274
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

102
 p. 274
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

103
 p. 275
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

Ex. 4.6.-3
Air at 15.6oC and 1 atm abs flows across a bank of tubes containing four
transverse rows in the direction of flow and 10 rows normal to the flow at a
velocity of 7.62 m/s as the air approaches the bank of tubes. The tube surfaces
are maintained at 57.2oC. The outside diameter of the tubes is 25.4 mm and the
tubes are in-line to the flow. The spacing Sn of the tubes normal to the flow is
38.1mm and also Sp is 38.1mm parallel to the flow. For a 0.305m length of the
tube bank, calculate the heat-transfer rate
Solution

104
 p. 275
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

1 2 3 4 D  25.4 mm
air, v  7.6 m/s
Tbi  15.6 o C 2
S n  38.1 mm
P  1 atm 3

10
From Appendix A.3, at T f  37.7 o C,
S p  38.1 mm  b  1.904  10 5 Pa.s
Tw  57.2 o C N Pr  0.705
Tw  Tb 57.2  18.3 k  0.027 W/m.K
Tf    37.7 o C
2 2   1.137 kg/m 3

105
 p. 275
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

vS n  38.1 
v max   7.6   22.86 m/s
Sn  D  38.1  25.47 

L max 
N Re 

0.02547(22.86)(1.137)

1.90  10 5
 3.47  10 4 ( 3  10 5 )

From Table 4.6 - 2 (pg 251)

Sn Sp
In line,   1.5  c  0.278, m  0.620
D D

106
 p. 275-276
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

hD m
1
N Nu   cN Re N Pr 3
k
1
h(0.0254)
 0.278(3.47  10 4 ) 0.620 (0.705) 3
0.027
h  171.8 W/m 2 .K
This h is for 10 rows. For only 4 rows in the transverse direction, the h must be multiplied by 0.9,
as given in Table 4.6 - 3

 h  0.9(171.8)  154.62 W/m 2 .K

A  40DL  40 (0.0254)(0.305)  0.973 m 2
At  10S n L  10(0.0381)(0.305)  0.1162 m 2
m  vAt (3600)  7.6(1.224)(0.1162)  1.084 kg/s

107
 p. 276
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders

 T  Tbi 
q  hA Tw  bo   m c p  Tbo  Tbi 
 2 
 T  15.6 
154.62(0.973) 57.2  bo   1.084(1.0048  103 )(Tbo  15.6)
 2 
Tbo  20 o C

If second trial ware to be made, the new average Tb to be use would be (15.6  20)/2 or 17.8 o C

108
 p. 276
4.6F Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds

2 Limitations
 h  cp  3 2.876 0.3023 Gases
   
c p '   k  f N Re N Re
0.35
N Re  10 to 10000

Note : All properties are at Tbmean, except for those with

subscript f

109
 p. 277
4.7A Natural Convection Heat Transfer

• Natural Convection heat transfer occurs when a solid surface is in contact

with a gas or liquid which is at a different temperature from the surface.
• Density differences in the fluid arising the buoyancy force to move the fluid.
• Free or natural convection as a result of the motion of the fluid.

110
 p. 277
4.7A Natural Convection Heat Transfer

The momentum balance equation is:

driving force

111
 p. 277
4.7A Natural Convection Heat Transfer

For gases,

The energy-balance can be expressed as follows

112
 p. 278
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Natural Convection from Vertical Planes and Cylinders

The average natural convection heat-transfer coefficient:

a and m are constants

113
 p. 279
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Ex. 4.7.-1
A heated vertical wall 1.0 ft (0.305 m) high of an oven for baking food with the surface
at 450 oF (505.4 K) is in contact with air at 100 oF (311 K). Calculate the heat-transfer
coefficient and the heat transfer/ft (0.305 m) width of wall. Note that heat-transfer for
radiation will not be considered. Use English and SI units.
Solution
Tw  505.4 K Tw  Tb
Tf   408.2 K
2
L  0.305 m From Appendix A.3, at T f  408.2 K,
air q
 b  2.32  10 5 Pa.s
Tb  311 K N Pr  0.690
k  0.0343 W/m.K
T  505.4  311  194.4 K   0.867 kg/m 3
1 1
   2.45  10 5
Tf 408.2
114
 p. 279
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

L3  2 g T c p 
N Gr N Pr  
2 k
 (0.305) 3 (0.867) 9.80655 (2.45  10 3 )(194.4) 
  3 2
(0.690)
 ( 2 .32  10 ) 
 1.270  108  (10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9 )

1
From Table 4.7 - 1, when 10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9 a  0.59, m 
4

hL q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 a  N Gr N Pr 
m
N Nu 
k  7.03(0.305) 2  505.4  311
 
1
h(0.305)  127.1 W
 0.59 1.27  10 8 4
0.0343
h  7.03 W/m 2 .K

115
 p. 280
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Simplified equations for the natural convection heat transfer from air to vertical
planes and cylinders at 1 atm abs pressure

116
 p. 280
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Factor corrections
Air (1 atm) Table 4.7-2
1
 P  2 Limitations
Air (≠1 atm) h  htable 4.7  2   N Gr N Pr : 10 4  10 9
 101.32 
2
Limitations
 P  3
h  htable 4.7  2   N Gr N Pr  10 9
 101.32 

Note : All P in kN / m 2

117
 p. 280-281
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Ex. 4.7.-2

Repeat Example 4.7-1 but use the simplified equation

Solution
Use simplified equation from Table 4.7 - 2  10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9
1
 T  4
h  1.37 
 L 
1
 194.4  4
 1.37 
 0.305 
 6.88 W/m 2 .K

q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 6.88(0.305) 2  505.4  311
 124.4 W 118
 p. 282
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Natural convection in enclosed spaces

Vertical plates
h Limitations
Gases: N Nu  1
k N Gr N Pr  2  10 3

 N Gr N Pr  1 / 4
N Nu  0.2 1/ 9 Limitations
L
  6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5
 
 N Gr N Pr  1 / 3
N Nu  0.073 1/ 9
Limitations
 L 2  10 5  N Gr N Pr  2  10 7
 
  119
 p. 282
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Limitations
Liquid: N Nu  1
N Gr N Pr  1 10 3

 N Gr N Pr  1 / 4 Limitations
N Nu  0.28 1/ 4
L 1  10 3  N Gr N Pr  1  10 7
 
 

120
 p. 282
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Vertical annulus

Gases 
 same as vertical plates
Liquid
 D1 
D2  D1

2

D2
 3  2 g  T1  T2  q
  T1  T2 
N Gr  Ain
2

121
 p. 282
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Horizontal plates
Limitations
N Nu  0.21 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 4
Gases: 6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5

N Nu  0.061 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 3 Limitations
N Gr N Pr  3 10 5

N Nu  0.069 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 3 0.074
Liquid: N Pr Limitations
1.5  10 5  N Gr N Pr  1  10 9

122
 p. 282
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

Ex. 4.7.-3
Air at 1 atm abs pressure is enclosed between two vertical plates where L = 0.6m
and δ = 30 mm. The plates are 0.4m wide. The plate temperature are T1 = 394.3 K
and T2 = 366.5 K. Calculate the heat-transfer rate across the air gap.

Solution

T1  T2 394.3  366.5
Tf    380.4 K
2 2
T1  394.3 K 0 .4 m
From Appendix A.3, at T f  380.4 K,
0.6 m

 b  2.21  10 5 Pa.s
air N Pr  0.693
1 atm
k  0.03219 W/m.K
q
  0.9295 kg/m 3
1 1
  30 mm T2  366.5 K    2.629  10 5
T f 380.4

123
 p. 283
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

 3  2 g  T1  T2 
N Gr 
2


 0.030 (0.9295) 2 (9.806)(2.629  10 5 )(394.3  366.5)
3

(2.21  10 5 ) 2
 3.423  10 4

N Gr N Pr  3.423  10 4 (0.693)
 2.372  10 4  6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5

124
 p. 283
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries

h N N  1/ 4

N Nu   0.2 Gr Pr1 / 9
k L
 
 
 
 4 1/ 4 
h(0.03)
 0.2 
2.372  10  
0.03219   0.6  1 / 9 
   
  0.03  
h  1.909 W/m 2 .K

q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 1.909(0.6  0.4) 394.3  366.5
 12.74 W

125
 p. 283
4.8 Boiling and Condensation

4.8A Boiling

 The boiling liquid is ausually contained in a vessel with a heating

surface of tubes or vertical or horizontal plates.

 The heating surface can be heated electrically or by a hot or

condensing liquid with the temperature above the boiling point.

 Bubbles of vapor are generated at the heated surface and rise

through the mass of liquid.

126
 p. 284
4.8A Boiling

Mechanisms of boiling

127
 p. 284
4.8A Boiling

128
 p. 284
4.8A Boiling

Nucleate boiling (region A-B)

For horizontal surface

1 Limitations
P = 1 atm h  1043 T  3 q
(kW / m 2 )  16
A
0  T  7.76

h  5.56 T 
3 Limitations
q
16   240
A
7.32  T  14.4

129
 p. 285
4.8A Boiling

For vertical surface

Limitations
1
h  537 T 
q
3
P = 1 atm 7 A
0  T  4.51

h  7.95 T 
3 Limitations
q
3  63
A
4.41  T  9.43
0.4
 p
For P atm abs h  Correction factor
1
P
h  2.55 T  e
3 1551 For forced convection boiling
Boiling inside tubes:-
inside tubes where P (kPa)

130
 p. 285
4.8A Boiling

Film boiling
The heat-transfer rate is low in view of the large temperature
drop used, which is not utilized effectively.
For horizontal tube
1


 k v  v   L   v  g h fg  0.4c p T
3
 4
h  0.62  v

 D v T 

where
k v  thermal conductivity of vapour
 v  density of vapour
 L  density of liquid
h fg  latent heat of vapourization at Tsat
T  Tw  Tsat
Tsat  temperature of sat. vapour
D  outside tube diameter
 v  viscosity of vapour 131
 p. 285
4.8A Boiling

Ex. 4.8.-1
Water is being boiled at 1 atm abs pressure in a jacketed kettle with steam
condensing in the jacket at 115.6 oC. The inside diameter of the kettle is 0.656m
and the height is 0.984m. The bottom is slightly curved but it will be assumed to
be flat. Both the bottom and the sides up to a height of 0.656m are jacketed. The
kettle surface for heat transfer is 3.2-mm stainless steel with a k of 16.27
W/m.K. The condensing steam coefficient hi inside the jacket has been estimated
as 10200 W/m2.K. Predict the boiling heat-transfer coefficient ho for the bottom
surface of the kettle
Solution
stainless steel
k  16.27 W/m.K Tsat  100 o C
water
Tsat  100 o C Tw
water
3.2 mm
hi  10200 W/m .K 2 T  115 .6 o C
T  115 .6 o C
132
 p. 285-286
4.8A Boiling

T  Tw  Tsat

assume that Tw  110 o C

T  110  100  10 o C  7.32  T  14.4

h  5.56 T 
3

 5.56(10)3
 55600 W/m2 K
115 .6  100
q  hAT  m h fg 
Ro  Rwall  Ri
1 1 9.8 10 5
R0   
h0 A 10200 A A

x 3.2  10 3 19.66 105

Rwall   
kA 16.27 A A
1 1 17.98 10 5
Ri   
hA 5.56 103 ( A) A 133
 p. 286
4.8A Boiling

q  55600 Ao (Tw  100) 

115.6  100 Ao
17.98  19.66  9.8 105
Tw  100  5.9
Tw  105.9 o C
 (This is lower than the assumed value of 110 o C)

For the second trial, Tw  108.3 o C will be used. We do trial and error until get
an accurate value.

134
 p. 286
4.8A Boiling

Ex 4.8-1: Predict the boiling heat transfer coeffcient for the vertical jacketed
sides of the kettle given in example 4.8-1. Using this coefficient for the sides
and the coefficient from example 4.8-1 for the bottom, predict the total
heat transfer.

Trial 1:
Assume Tw = 107.8 oC, ΔT = 107.8 – 100 oC = 7.8 oC = 7.8 K
Ho = 7.95(ΔT )3 = 3773 W/m2. K

Ri= 1/hi.A = 9.8 x 10-5

Rw = Δx/kA = 19.66 x 10-5
Ro = 1/ho.A = 26.50 x 10-5
ΣR = Ri + Rw + Ro = 55.96 x 10-5

135
q = ΔT/ Ro = (115.6 – 100)/ ΣR
 p. 286
4.8A Boiling

Area of the sides  cylinder πDL = 1.3519 m2

qS = A.ΔT/R = (115.6 – 100) (1.3519) / (55.96 x 10-5)

For the bottom of the kettle,

Use Tw = 108.2
ho = 5.56 (ΔT)3
Then calculate qB at the bottom using the area at the bottom (πD2/4)
Total heat transfer, qB + qS

136
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

 Condensation of a vapor to a liquid involves a change in

phase with large heat transfer coefficient.

 It occurs when saturated vapor such as condensed steam

comes into contact with a solid (e.g. vertical or horizontal
tubes or other surfaces) whose temperature is below
saturation temperature.

 A condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the

surface by the action of gravity.

 This film of liquid form the main resistance o heat transfer –

film type condensation.

137
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

 Another type of condensation is dropwise condensation where

a small drops are formed on the surface. These drops grows
and coalesce, and the fluid flows from the surface.

 The average coefficient 110 000 W/m2. K which is 10 times

larger than film type condensation.

 Dropwise condensation occurs on contaminated surfaces and

when impurities are present.

 Film condensation is more dependable and more common.

Normal design purposes, film condensation is assumed.

138
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

Film-condensation coefficients for vertical surfaces

x
dx

Tsat
-y
element
dx

y

139
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

The downward force = gravitational force-buoyance force

 l g   l   v  3
 
Mass transfer rate : - m
3 l

140
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

The rate of heat transfer if a linear temperature distribution is assumed in the

liquid between the wall and the vapor.

141
 p. 287
4.8B Condensation

142
 p. 289
4.8B Condensation

By integrating over the total length L, the average value of h is:

1
  l   l   v  gh fg k l 3  4
Average heat transfer coeff.: - h  0.943 
  l L Tsat  Tw  

For laminar flow, the average heat transfer coefficient are above 20%

The final recommended expression for vertical surfaces in

laminar flow is
1

hL   l   l   v  gh fg L3  4
N Nu   1.13 
kl   k
l l  T 
143
 p. 289
4.8B Condensation

hL  g l 2 L3 3
Long vertical surface : - N Nu   0.0077   N Re  0.4
kl  2 
 l 
4m 4
Where N Re   (tube)
D l  l
4m 4
N Re   (plate)
W l  l

or

144
 p. 289
4.8B Condensation

145
 p. 290
4.8B Condensation

Ex. 4.8.-2
Steam saturated at 68.9 kPa is condensing on a vertical tube 0.305 m long having
an OD of 0.0254 m and a surface temperature of 86.11 oC. Calculate the average
heat-transfer coefficient.

Solution
Steam
Psat  10 psia  from the appendix A.2 - 9,
Tw  187 o F Tsat  193 o F
h fg  982.1 btu/Ibm
L  1 ft
Tsat  Tw 187  193
Tf    190 o F
2 2

1 in

146
 p. 290
4.8B Condensation

From Appendix A.2 - 11, at T f  190 o F

 L  0.2228  10 3 Ibm/ft.s
kl  0.39 btu/ft.h.o F
 l  60.3 Ibm/ft3

We did not have m , so we cannot calculate N Re

 so we suppose to assume the process is laminar or turbulent
Assume Laminar flow, N Re  1800

hL   l   l   v  gh fg L3  4
N Nu   1.13 
kl   k
l l  T 
1
h(1)  60.3 60.3  0  (32.174)(3600) (982.1)(1) 
2 3 4
 1.13
0.39  3

 0.2228  10  3600 (0.93)(193  187) 


h  2350 btu/h.ft 2 .o F 147

 p. 291
4.8B Condensation

q  hAT  m
 h fg
  1  
2350  (1)  (6)  m
 (982.1)
4 2 
m  3.77 Ibm/h

4m
N Re 
Dl
4(3.77)

1
  (0.2228 10 3  3600)
2
 73.5  ( 1800)

N Re  1800  so the assumption that laminar flow is correct

148
 p. 291
4.8B Condensation

Film-condensation coefficients outside horizontal cylinders

For a vertical tier of N horizontal tube:

149
 p. 291
4.9 Heat Exchanger

• The transfer of heat between two fluids is generally done in

heat exchangers
• The most common type is the hot and cold fluids do not come
into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube
wall or a flat or curved surface
• The transfer of heat from the hot fluid to the wall is convection,
through the tube wall by conduction, and then by convection to
the cold fluid

150
 p. 291
4.9 Heat Exchanger

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

– simplest exchanger
– useful for small flow rates
– cocurrent or countercurrent

151
 4.9 Heat Exchanger p. 291-292

Shell and Tube Exchanger

• Oil-refining, chemical, petrochemical and power companies

• Can be designed for almost any duty with a very wide range of
temperatures and pressures
• Can be built in many materials
• Many suppliers
• Repair can be by non-specialists
• Design methods and mechanical codes have been established
from many years of experience

152
 p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger

153
 p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger

1 shell pass & 1 tube passes (1-1 HE)

– most common in process industries

– larger and continuous flow – tubes arranged in bundle
– one single shell
– simplest = 1 shell pass & 1 tube pass = 1-1 counterflow exhanger

154
 p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger

• Bundle of tubes in large cylindrical shell

• Baffles used both to support the tubes and to direct into multiple cross flow

• Gaps or clearance must be left between the baffle and the shell and
between the tubes and the baffle to enable assembly
• Baffles are used to establish a cross-flow and to induce turbulent mixing
of the shell-side fluid, both of which enhance convection.

155
 p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger

156
 p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger

Condenser

157
 p. 293
4.9 Heat Exchanger

Cross Flow Exchanger

(a) One fluid mixed (gas) & one fluid unmixed (b) both fluids unmixed

• Cross flow hat exchanger is commonly used when a gas such

as air is being heated or cooled.

158
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 294
Factors

Multiple-pass heat exchanger is necessary to obtain a different

expression for the mean temperature difference, depending on
the arrangement of the shell and tube passes.

q = Ui Ai ∆Tm = Uo Ao ∆Tm

∆Tm = mean temperature = FT ∆Tlm

FT is correction factor 159

4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 295
Factors

160
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 295
Factors

161
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 294-296
Factors
Ex. 4.9.-1
A 1-2 heat exchanger containing one shell pass and two tube passes
heats 2.52 kg/s of water from 21.1 to 54.4 oC by using hot water
under pressure entering at 115.6 and leaving at 48.9 oC. The outside
surface area of the tubes in the exchanger is Ao = 9.30 m2
a) Calculate the mean temperature different ΔTm in the exchanger
and the overall heat transfer coefficient Uo.
b) For the same temperatures but using a 2-4 exchanger, what
would be the ΔTm?
Solution
Tci = 21.2 C
0
Thi = 115.6 C
0

Tho = 48.9 C 162

Tco = 54.4 C
0
0
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 296
Factors

Assume Cpm of water of 4187 J/kg.K

Heat balance on the cold water,
Tco – Tci = (54.4 – 21.1) oC = 33.3 oC = 33.3 K

q = m Cpm(Tco – Tci) = (2.52)(4187)(54.4 – 21.1) = 351356 W

The log mean temperature difference

Calculate the Z and Y values to find FT value

163
4.9B
4.9BLog-Mean-Temperature-Difference
Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correctionp. 296
Correction p. 296
Factors
Factors

0.74

151
From Fig. 4.9-4 (a) , FT = 0.74 164
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 296
Factors

Thus, the mean temperature difference is:

Tm FT Tlm 0.74(42.3) 31.3C 31.3K

Rearranging the heat transfer equation to solve for Uo and

substituting the known values, we have

165
 4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 296
Factors
b)
0.94

From Fig. 4.9-4 (b) , FT = 0.94

166
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 296
Factors

Thus, the mean temperature difference is:

Tm FT Tlm 0.94(42.3) 39.8C 39.8 K

The 2-4 exchanger utilizes more of the available temperature

driving force

167
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 296

168
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 297

Heat balance for cold (C) and hot (H)

169
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 298

For the case of a single-pass, counterflow exchanger

170
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 298

Ex. 4.9.-2

Solution

171
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 298

172
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 299

0.71

173
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 299

174
4.9D Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values p. 299

175
4.9D Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values p. 299

After a period, the performance of the heat exchanger gets degraded as;
heat transfer surface may become
•coated with various deposits
•corroded due to interaction between fluid and material.
•Fouling factor depends on operating temperature & velocity of the fluids
as well as the length of service.

176
4.9D Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values p. 300

177