CHAPTER 12:

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, T, and deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and T?

1
 VIEW OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
• Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:
Al (d) (a)

Si
(doped)
45 m 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
--Si shows up as light regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

--Al shows up as light regions. (c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 18.25, Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.25 is courtesy
Fig. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.0,
Nick Gonzales, National Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan,
Callister 6e.
UT.)
2
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
• Ohm's Law:
V = I R
voltage drop (volts) resistance (Ohms)
current (amps)
A
(cross e- I
sect.
area) V
L

• Resistivity,  and Conductivity, :

--geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
E: electric V I resistivity
field
  (Ohm-m)
L A
intensity J: current density
conductivity I
L L 
• Resistance: R  
A A
3
 CONDUCTIVITY: COMPARISON
-1
• Room T values (Ohm-m)
METALS conductors CERAMICS
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10 -13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10 -14
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15 -10 -17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.2, and 18.3, Callister 6e.

4
 EX: CONDUCTIVITY PROBLEM
• Problem 12.2, p. 524, Callister 2e:
100m
Cu wire - e- I = 2.5A +

V

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that

V < 1.5V?
100m
< 1.5V
L V
R  2.5A
A I
D2 7 -1
6.07 x 10 (Ohm-m)
4
Solve to get D > 1.88 mm

5
CONDUCTION & ELECTRON TRANSPORT
• Metals:
-- Thermal energy puts - +
many electrons into
a higher energy state. net e - flow
• Energy States: Energy Energy
-- the cases below empty
for metals show band
that nearby GAP empty
band
energy states partly
are accessible filled filled
by thermal valence valence

filled states
band
filled states
fluctuations. band

filled filled
band band
6
ENERGY STATES: INSULATORS AND
SEMICONDUCTORS
• Insulators: • Semiconductors:
--Higher energy states not --Higher energy states
accessible due to gap. separated by a smaller gap.
Energy Energy
empty
band empty
band
GAP ?
GAP
filled filled
valence valence
filled states

filled states
band band

filled filled
band band
7
METALS: RESISTIVITY VS T, IMPURITIES
• Imperfections increase resistivity
--grain boundaries
These act to scatter
--dislocations
electrons so that they
--impurity atoms take a less direct path.
--vacancies
6 Ni


t %
5 3 2a • Resistivity
+ 3.
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Cu Ni increases with:
Resistivity,

a t % Ni
4 6
2.1 1.12 a t %
u + --temperature
C u+
3 e d C --wt% impurity
e f o r m t % Ni
2 d
1.12 a --%CW
Cu + Cu
1
“Pu r e ”   thermal
0 -200 -100 0  thermal
T (°C)
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.8 adapted from J.O. Linde,
Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics
def
of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.)
8
 EX: ESTIMATING CONDUCTIVITY
• Question:
--Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy
that has a yield strength of 125MPa.
180
Yield strength (MPa)

50

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
Resistivity, 
160
140 40
120 30
10 0 21 wt%Ni 20
80 10
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt. %Ni, (Concentration C) wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)
Adapted from Fig.
8 Adapted from Fig.
7.14(b), Callister 6e.   30 x10 Ohm  m 18.9, Callister 6e.

1
   3.3x10 6 (Ohm  m) 1

9
PURE SEMICONDUCTORS: CONDUCTIVITY
VS T
• Data for Pure Silicon: E gap / kT
-- increases with T undoped  e
--opposite to metals Energy
electrical conductivity,  empty
(Ohm-m) -1 ? band
10 4 GAP
electrons
10 3 filled can cross
valence

filled states
10 2 gap at
band
higher T
10 1
filled
10 0 pure band
(undoped)
10 -1
material band gap (eV)
10 -2 Si 1.11
50 10 0 1000
T(K) Ge 0.67
Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 adapted GaP 2.25
from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 75, p. 865,
1949.)
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 10
18.2, Callister 6e.
 CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF
ELECTRON AND HOLE MIGRATION
• Concept of electrons and holes:
valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

+ - + -

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
Adapted from Fig. 18.10,
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister 6e.
# holes/m 3
  n e e  p e h
hole mobility
# electrons/m 3 electron mobility
11
 INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION
• Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p)
--case for pure Si
• Extrinsic:
--n ≠ p
--occurs when impurities are added with a different
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)
• N-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • P-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
electron
  n e e 4 + 5+ 4 + 4 + 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+   p e h
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
no applied Si atom no applied
electric field electric field
12
 DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T
• Data for Doped Silicon: • Comparison: intrinsic vs
-- increases doping extrinsic conduction...
--reason: imperfection sites --extrinsic doping level:
lower the activation energy to 1021/m3 of a n-type donor
produce mobile electrons. impurity (such as P).
--for T < 100K: "freeze-out"
10 4 thermal energy insufficient to


0.0052at%B
excite electrons.
10 3
--for 150K < T < 450K: "extrinsic"
electrical conductivity,

doped
10 2
(Ohm-m) -1

0.0013at%B --for T >> 450K: "intrinsic"

10 1

concentration (10 21 /m 3 )
doped
10 0 pure undoped Adapted from Fig. 18.16,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.16
(undoped) 3
10 -1 conduction electron from S.M. Sze,

freeze-out

extrinsic

in trinsic
Semiconductor Devices,
2
10 -2
Physics, and Technology,
Bell Telephone
50 10 0 1000 Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)
1
T(K)
Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 adapted 0
from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 75, p. 865,
1949.)
0 200 400 600 T(K)
13
 P-N RECTIFYING JUNCTION
• Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current.
• Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.
• Results: p -type n-type
+ -
--No applied potential:
+ + -
+ + - - -
no net current flow.
--Forward bias: carrier
flow through p-type and p -type + - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at +-
p-n junction; current flows.

--Reverse bias: carrier

+p -type+ n-type -
flow away from p-n junction; - + - - +
carrier conc. greatly reduced + + - -
at junction; little current flow.
14
 SUMMARY
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
--material parameters.
--geometry independent.
• Electrical resistance is:
--a geometry and material dependent parameter.
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
--different in whether there are accessible energy
states for conductance electrons.
• For metals, conductivity is increased by
--reducing deformation
--reducing imperfections
--decreasing temperature.
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
--increasing temperature
--doping (e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type).
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 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems: