1

2
 Chapter 17: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, T, and deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and T?

3
 View of an Integrated Circuit
• Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 mm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as light regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

-- Al shows up as light regions. (c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 17.27 (a), Callister’s MSE Adapted

Fig. (a), (b), (c) from Chapter
Version.
opening page, Chapter 17,
(Fig. 17.27 is courtesy Nick Gonzales, National
Callister’s MSE Adapted Version 4
Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan, UT.)
 Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law:
DV = I R
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)
A
(cross e- I
sect.
area) DV
L
• Resistivity, r and Conductivity, s:
-- geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
-- Resistivity is a material property & is independent of sample

V I resistivity
E: electric   (Ohm-m)
field L A
intensity J: current density
1
• Resistance: L L conductivity 
R  
A A 5
 Electrical Properties
• Which will conduct more electricity?

RA VA
 
2D  I

• Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

• So resistance depends on sample
geometry, etc.

6
 Definitions 
RA

VA
 I
Further definitions
J= <= another way to state Ohm’s law
current I
J  current density   like a flux
surface area A
  electric field potential = V/ or (V/  )

J =  (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

Current carriers
• electrons in most solids
• ions can also carry (particularly in liquid solutions)
7
 Conductivity: Comparison
• Room T values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10 -14
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 17.1, 17.3, and 17.4
Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. 8
.
 power law equation (formula): P = IV= IR2

Resistance
Component
(Ω)
1 meter of copper wire with 1 mm
0.02[4]
diameter
1 km overhead power line (typical) 0.03[5]
AA battery (typical internal resistance) 0.1[6]
Incandescent light bulb filament
200–1000[7]
(typical)
1000 to
Human body
100,000[8]

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance
9
 Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that DV < 1.5 V?

100m
Cu wire - e- I = 2.5A +

DV

100m
< 1.5V
L V
R 
A I 2.5A
D 2
6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1
4
Solve to get D > 1.87 mm

10
Resistivity Measurement

Figure 17.1 Schematic representation of the apparatus used to measure

electrical resistivity
 • principal quantum number, 
n =1,2, 3……or k, l, m, n…..
Sub-Shell
Shell • A subshell is the set of
states defined by a
state common azimuthal
quantum number, ℓ, within a
shell. The values ℓ = 0, 1, 2,
3 correspond to the s, p, d,
and f labels, respectively

12
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configuration
13
 Electronic Band Structures
Figure 17.2
Schematic plot of
electron energy
versus interatomic
separation for an
aggregate of 12
atoms Upon close
approach, each of
the 1s and 2s atomic
states splits to form
an electron energy
band consisting of
12 states.

The number of states within each band will equal the total of all
states contributed by the N atoms. For example, an s band will
consist of N states, and a p band of 3N states.
14
From Fig. 17.2 Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
Molecular-orbital energies corresponding to delocalization of valence electrons
over increasing numbers of Li atoms. A 1mg sample of Li would contain nearly
1020 atoms. The corresponding orbital energies are so closely spaced that they
constitute essentially continuous bands.
Within each band, the energy states are discrete, yet the difference between
adjacent states is exceedingly small
15
 Band Structure
• Valence band – filled – highest occupied energy levels (HOMO)
• Conduction band – empty – lowest unoccupied energy levels (LUMO)

(a) (b)

Conduction
band

valence band

Figure 17.3 (a) The conventional representation of the electron energy band structure for a solid
material at the equilibrium interatomic separation. (b) Electron energy versus interatomic separation
for an aggregate of atoms, illustrating how the energy band structure at the equilibrium separation
16
in (a) is generated.
 DIFFERENT BAND STRUCTURE?
• Each copper atom has one 4s electron;

• In solid Cu comprised of N atoms, the 4s

band is capable of accommodating 2N
electrons.

• Thus only half the available electron

positions within this 4s band are filled.

• Mg atom has two 3s electrons.

• In solid Mg the 3s and 3p bands overlap.

17
 Cu Mg f04_17_pg628

The energy corresponding to the highest filled state at 0 K is called the

Fermi energy Ef
 Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (Conductors):
-- Thermal energy puts - +
many electrons into
a higher energy state. -

• Energy States: Energy Energy

-- for metals nearby empty
energy states band
are accessible GAP empty
by thermal partly band
fluctuations. filled filled
valence

filled states
valence
filled states
band band

filled filled
band band
19
 Energy States: Insulators &
Semiconductors
• Insulators: • Semiconductors:
-- Higher energy states not -- Higher energy states separated
accessible due to gap (> 3 eV). by smaller gap (< 3 eV).
Energy Energy
empty
band empty
band
GAP ?
GAP
filled filled

filled states
filled states

valence valence
band band

filled filled
band band
20
 Charge Carriers
Adapted from Fig. 18.6 (b), Callister 7e.
Two charge carrying mechanisms

Electron – negative charge

Hole – equal & opposite
positive charge
• Electrons scattered by impurities,
grain boundaries, etc.
Move at different speeds – drift
velocity (Vd): average electron
velocity in the direction of the force
imposed by the applied field

Semiconductor, Insulator: Higher temp. promotes more electrons into the

conduction band   as T
21
 Fermi–Dirac distribution function, f (E):

The Fermi–Dirac distribution

function, f (E), for various
temperatures. The distribution
functions at temperatures
higher than 0 K are shown by
dashed and dash–dotted lines.
Here, T2 > T1

Another definition of Fermi Energy:

The energy level which has a 50% probability of getting occupied
by an electron at any temperature
22
ELECTRON MOBILITY
 = nee
e (m2/V-s) is mobility

vd = e

The drift velocity represents the

average electron velocity in the
direction of the force imposed by the
applied field.

• Imperfections increase resistivity

-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies

f07_17_pg631
Metals: Resistivity vs T, Impurities

 = thermal + impurity + deformation

For a two-phase alloy
consisting of  and 
phases, a rule-of-mixtures
expression may be utilized to
approximate the resistivity as
follows:

f08_17_pg633
Problem 17.12
(a) Calculate the number of free electrons per cubic meter for silver,
assuming that there are 1.3 free electrons per silver atom. The
electrical conductivity and density for Ag are 6.8x107 (-m)-1and
10.5 g/cm3, respectively.
(b) Now compute the electron mobility for Ag.

25
Problem 17.12
(a)

(b)

26
Problem 17.16

Tin bronze has a composition of 89 wt% Cu and 11 wt% Sn, and consists
of two phases at room temperature: an  phase, which is copper
containing a very small amount of tin in solid solution, and an  phase,
which consists of approximately 37 wt% Sn. Compute the room
temperature conductivity of this alloy given the following data:

27
Problem 17.16

+ε

28
29
 Estimating Conductivity
• Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity  of a Cu-Ni alloy that has a yield strength
of 125 MPa.
180 From Fig. 17.9, Callister‘ MSE Ad. Vr
Yield strength (MPa)

160

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
50

Resistivity, r
140
125 40
120 30
100 20
21 wt%Ni
80 10
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt. %Ni, (Concentration C) wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)

From step 1:
  30 x10 8 Oh m  m
CNi = 21 wt%Ni 1
   3.3 x10 6 (Oh m  m)1
 30
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
– Group IVA materials
• Compound semiconductors
– III-V compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– II-VI compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

31
Conduction in Terms of Electron and
Hole Migration
• Concept of electrons and holes:
valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
From Fig. 17.11
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister’s Materials
# holes/m 3 Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

  n e e  p e  h
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility

32
Write the electroneutrality condition for defects in silicon :
• Pure nil  e  h/ 

• boron-doped Si
B  BSi/  h 
Si
• phosphorous-doped P  PSi  e /

/  n p
nil  e  h [ h  ]  [e / ]

Si
B  B  h/  /
[ B ]  [h ]
Si
 [ BSi/ ]  p
Si

Si
P  P  e  / [ PSi ]  [e / ] [ PSi ]  n
Si

33
Pure Semiconductors: Conductivity vs T
• Data for Pure Silicon:
 E gap / 2kT
-- s increases with T  undoped  e
-- opposite to metals
Energy
empty
? band
GAP
electrons
filled can cross

filled states
valence gap at
band
higher T

filled
band

material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40

Selected values from Table

17.3, Callister’s MSE 34
Adapted Version.
Table 17.3 Band Gap Energies, Electron and Hole Mobilities, and
Intrinsic Electrical Conductivities at Room Temperature for
Semiconducting Materials

35
 Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity

 = n|e|e + p|e|e

• for intrinsic semiconductor n = p

  = n|e|(e + n)

• Ex: GaAs
 106 (  m)1
n 

e e  n (1.6x1019 C)(0.85  0.45 m2 /V  s)

For GaAs n = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

For Si n = 1.3 x 1016 m-3
 36
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p)
--case for pure Si
• Extrinsic:
--n ≠ p
--occurs when impurities are added with a different
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
  n e e electron   p e h
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
From Figs. 17.12(a) &
17.14(a), Callister’s Materials
no applied Si atom no applied
Science and Engineering, electric field electric field
Adapted Version. 37
n-type

Ef

f13_17_pg642
P-type

Ef

f15_17_pg643
40
 f18_17_pg646

For silicon, dependence of room temperature electron and hole

mobilities (logarithmic scale) on dopant concentration
Figure 18.19 Temperature dependence of (a) electron and (b) hole
mobilities for silicon that has been doped with various donor and acceptor
concentrations. Both sets of axes are scaled logarithmically.
 n-type Si

Mass-Action Law

The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a
fixed temperature and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity
added. 
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_action_law_(electronics)
HALL EFFECT When a magnetic field is present
f20_17_pg650
that is not parallel to the direction of
motion of moving charges, these
charges experience a force, called
the Lorentz force

RH = Hall coefficient or Hall Resistance

Problem 17.32

45
46
47
Self practice problems
17.13
17.14
17.18
17.31
17.35
17.36
17.47
17.53
17.55
17.57
17.D1
17.D5
17.D6
17.D7

48
 p-n Rectifying Junction
• Allows flow of electrons in one direction only , e.g., useful to convert
alternating current to direct current.
• Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped Si crystal, as for
example
• Results: + p-type+ -
n-type
-
+
--No applied potential: + + - - -
no net current flow.
p-type + - n-type
-- Forward bias: carrier + + + - -
flow through p-type and + - -
n-type regions; holes and + -
electrons recombine at
p-n junction; current flows.
n-type -
-- Reverse bias: carrier + p-type+
flow away from p-n junction;
- + - - +
carrier conc. greatly reduced + + - -
at junction; little current flow.
49
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 17.22, Callister’s MSE Fig. 17.23, Callister’s MSE

Adapted Version Adapted Version. 50
51
 Transistor
• field effect transistor

Fig. 17.24,
Callister’s MSE
Adapted Version.
52
f25_17_pg655
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET)
+ - -

(P) (n) (n) (P)

A MOSFET consists of an n-(p-)doped silicon

substrate with two, highly p-(n-)doped contacts,
source and drain. 
The so-called channel region in between is covered by an insulating layer, the gate-oxide,
which is in contact with the gate electrode.
Without applying a voltage at the gate electrode, no current can flow from source to
drain as the pn-juctions between each contact and the substrate act as two opposite
diodes. 
When applying a negative(positive) voltage at the gate electrode, the channel region
close to the gate oxide is "inverted" (i.e. from n-(p-) to p-(n-)doped) and current can flow
between source and drain.
Central to the functionality is the thin insulating layer, the gate-oxide.
The gate-oxide acts as the dielectricum of a capacitor which attracts
charge carriers into the channel region
54
55
 KEY MOSFET FEATURES
FEATURE DETAILS
Gate gate is physically insulated from the channel by
construction an oxide layer. Voltages applied to the gate
control the conductivity of the channel as a
result of the electric field induced capacitively
across the insulating dielectric layer.
N / P channel Both N-channel and P-channel variants are
available
Enhancement Both enhancement and depletion types are
/ depletion available. As the name suggests the depletion
mode MOSFET acts by depleting or removing
the current carriers from the channel, whereas
the enhancement type increases the number of
carriers according to the gate voltage.

56
 EOT- equivalent oxide
thickness
Schematic image of MOS transistors in the year 2003 and 2013.
Moore's law
•  The observation made in 1965 by Gordon Moore, co-founder
of intel, that

 The number of transistors per square inch on integrated

circuits had doubled every year since the integrated circuit was
invented.

 Moore predicted that this trend would continue for the

foreseeable future.

 In subsequent years, the pace slowed down a bit, but data

density has doubled approximately every 18 months, and this
is the current definition of moore's law.

 Most experts, including moore himself, expect moore's law to

hold for at least another two decades
58
17.16 CONDUCTION IN IONIC MATERIALS

Both cations and anions in ionic materials possess an electric

charge and, as a consequence, are capable of migration or
diffusion when an electric field is present.

59
 Imperfections in Ceramics
Non-stoichiometry (composition deviates from the one predicted by
chemical formula) occurs when one ion type can exist in two valence
states, e.g. Fe2+, Fe3+
• In FeO, Fe valence state is 2+.
Two Fe ions in 3+ state  an Fe vacancy is required to maintain charge
neutrality.  fewer Fe ions  non-stoichiometry

60
t04_17_pg658
Two conditions to become polymer conductive:
1-The first condition for this is that the polymer consists of
alternating single and double bonds, called conjugated
double bonds.
In conjugation, the bonds between the carbon atoms are
alternately single and double. Every bond contains a
localised “sigma” (σ) bond which forms a strong chemical
bond. In addition, every double bond also contains a less
strongly localised “pi” (π) bond which is weaker.

62
2-The second condition is that the plastic has to be
disturbed - either by removing electrons from
(oxidation), or inserting them into (reduction), the
material. The process is known as Doping.
• There are two types of doping
1-oxidation with halogen (or p-doping).
3x
CH n   I  CH n   I 3


2
2- Reduction with alkali metal (called n-doping).

CH n   xNa  CH n  x

 xNa 

63
 • The iodine molecule attracts an electron from
the polyacetylene chain and becomes I3-. The
polyacetylene molecule, now positively
charged, is termed a radical cation, or polaron.

• The lonely electron of the double bond, from which an

electron was removed, can move easily. As a consequence,
the double bond successively moves along the molecule.
• The positive charge, on the other hand, is fixed by
electrostatic attraction to the iodide ion, which does not
move so readily. 64
Factors that affect the conductivity of
any material

1-Denesity of charge carriers.

2- Their mobility.
3-The direction.
4-presence of doping materials (additives
that facilitate the polymer conductivity)
5-Temperature.

65
What is an OLED?

OLED - Organic Light Emitting Diode

An OLED is any light emitting diode (LED) which emissive

electroluminescent layer is composed of a film of organic
compounds.
LED Display
• Light emission resulted from the
recombination of holes and electrons in
a semiconductor

67
 When hole and electron
recombine:

Hole+ + Electron-

Excited Ground
states states

Light emission

68
 History of OLEDs
• First developed in the early 1950s in France
• Early technology would emmite a short burst of light when a
voltage was applied
• This early form applied high-voltage alternating current field to
crystalline thin films of acridine orange and quinacrine.
• 1960s - AC-driven electroluminescent cells
using doped anthracene was developed

• In a 1977 paper, Shirakawa et al. Reported

high conductivity in similarly oxidized and
iodine-doped polyacetylene.  

• In 1987 Chin Tang and Van Slyke introduced

the first light emitting diodes from thin organic
layers. 

• In 1990 electroluminescence in polymers was

discovered. 
Architecture of OLEDs
• Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil) - The substrate supports the OLED.
• Anode (transparent) - The anode removes electrons (adds electron "holes") when a
current flows through the device.
Organic layer:
o Conducting layer - transport "holes" from
the anode. One conducting polymer used in
OLEDs is polyaniline.
o Emissive layer - transport electrons from the
cathode; this is where light is made. One
polymer used in the emissive layer is
polyfluorene.

Schematic of a bilayer OLED: 1. Cathode (−), 2. Emissive Layer, 3. Emission of

radiation, 4. Conductive Layer, 5. Anode (+)
• Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of OLED) - The
cathode injects electrons when a current flows through the device.
The conductivity of conductive polymers decreases with falling
temperature in contrast to the conductivities of typical metals, e.g. silver,
which increase with falling temperature.
71
Dielectric Materials

f29_17_pg653
Dielectric Materials

Orienting dipole by application of an electric

field is termed polarization

dipole moment p
P = total dipole moment per unit volume of
the dielectric material,
 The capacitance C (coulombs per volt, or farads (F))=
the quantity of charge stored on either plate under unit
voltage

parallel-plate capacitor with a vacuum in the region

between the plates
f31_17_pg664

The parameter ε0 called the permittivity (8.85 x 10-12

F/m) of a vacuum, is a universal constant having the
value of F/m.
If a dielectric material is inserted into the
region within the plates then

The relative permittivity εr often called the

dielectric constant,
the surface charge density D, or quantity of charge per unit area
of capacitor plate (C/m2), is proportional to the electric field. When
a vacuum is present, then

= Q/A

D is also called the dielectric

displacement.

75
 = Q/A

polarization electric field within the dielectric that results from the
mutual alignment of the many atomic or molecular dipoles with the
externally applied field ε.

76
 f32_17_pg667
Dielectric Materials and frequency
Electronic

Ionic

Orientation
 f34_17_pg668

The absorption of
electrical energy by a
dielectric material
that is subjected to
an alternating electric
field is termed
dielectric loss.
• Under AC field, With each direction reversal, the dipoles attempt to reorient with the
field

• For each polarization type, some minimum reorientation time exists, which depends
on the ease with which the particular dipoles are capable of realignment.

• A relaxation frequency is taken as the reciprocal of this minimum reorientation

time.
t05_17_pg662
 Dielectric Constant
• The capacitance, C, of a capacitor formed by two parallel
plates of area A spaced d apart with the area between the
plates filled with dielectric material with a relative dielectric
constant of ε is:
Ferroelectric - A material
that shows spontaneous
and reversible dielectric
polarization.
82
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
Ferroelectric Ceramics are dipolar below Curie TC = 120ºC
• cooled below Tc in strong electric field - make material
with strong dipole moment
Fig. 17.35
Callister’s Materials
Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

84
 Polarisation hysteresis

spontaneous polarisation.

P
remnant polarisation

E
coercive field
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity – application of pressure produces current

at compression induces applied voltage induces

rest voltage expansion
Direct piezoelectric effect: When subjected to mechanical
stress, generate an electric charge proportional to that stress.
Converse piezoelectric effect: Ability of transforming electrical
energy to mechanical energy which is also known as
motor/actuator effect.
86
Piezoelectric Materials Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that
accumulates in certain solid materials (such
as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological
matter such as bone, DNA and
various proteins)  in response to applied
mechanical stress.

87
Suppose that the electrical conductivity of MgO is determined
primarily by the diffusion of the Mg2+ ions. Estimate the mobility
of the Mg2+ ions and calculate the electrical conductivity of
MgO at 1800°C. The diffusion coefficient of Mg2+ ions in MgO
at 1800°C is 10-10 cm2/s.

88
89
Suppose that the average displacement of the electrons
relative to the nucleus in a copper atom is 10-8 Å when an
electric field is imposed on a copper plate. Calculate
the electronic polarization.

90
m

91