Networks

IPV4 ADDRESSING ARCHITECTURE

Hardware Addressing

- used to uniquely identify a host within a local network (function of the Data-Link
layer)

- Ethernet utilizes the 48-bit MAC address as its hardware address

00:43:AB:F2:32:13
0043.ABF2.3213
- Represented in hexadecimal

The first six hexadecimal digits of a MAC address identify the manufacturer of the
physical network interface Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI)

The last six digits uniquely identify the host itself, and are referred to as the host ID

MAC addresses provide no mechanism to create boundaries between networks

The scalability limitations of Layer-2 hardware addresses are mitigated using logical
addresses
Logical Addressing

It is the function of the Network layer

A logical address contains two components:

Network ID – identifies which network a host belongs to.

Host ID – uniquely identifies the host on that network

Examples of logical addressing protocols include

Internetwork Packet
Exchange (IPX) and Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol

Developed by the Department of Defense developed the Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP), to provide both Network and Transport layer functions

IP provides two fundamental Network layer services:

• Logical addressing – provides a unique address that identifies both

the host, and the network that host exists on.

• Routing – determines the best path to a particular destination

network, and then routes data accordingly

IPv4 employs a 32-bit address, which limits the number of possible

addresses to 4,294,967,296
IPV4 Addressing

An IP address provides a hierarchical structure to both uniquely

identify a host,
and what network that host exists on
IP address is most often represented in decimal

IP address is comprised of four octets, separated by periods

158 . 80 . 164 .3
First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth
Octet
Each octet is an 8-bit number, resulting in a 32-bit IP
address

The smallest possible value of an octet is 0, or 00000000 in binary. The

largest possible value of an octet is 255, or 11111111 in binary
IPV4 Address Classes
IPV4 Address Class Range

10.0.0.0 CLASS A
129.10.0.0 CLASS B
192.168.10.0 CLASS C
238.20.10.0 CLASS D
Hosts and Networks
Types of IPv4 Addresses
• Public and Private IPv4 Addresses
– Private addresses are not routed over the Internet
– Private Addresses:
• 10.0.0.0/8 or 10.0.0.0 to10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 /12 or 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
• 192.168.0.0 /16 or 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
• Special User IPv4 Addresses
– Loopback addresses
• 127.0.0.0 /8 or 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.254
– Link-Local addresses or Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) addresses
• 169.254.0.0 /16 or 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254
– TEST-NET addresses
• 192.0.2.0/24 or 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255
• Classless Addressing
– CIDR
– Allocated IPv4 addresses based on prefix length
• Assignment of IP Addresses
 Networks
SUBNET MASK
Subnet Mask

A subnet mask is required to provide this distinction:

192.168.20.1 255.255.0.0

The above IP address has a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. The subnet mask
follows two rules:

• If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, the corresponding

bit in the address identifies the network.

• If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask, the corresponding

bit in the address identifies the host.

Looking at the above address and subnet mask in binary:

IP Address: 11000000.10101000.000010100.00000000
Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
 Creates multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or
C network

 If you do not subnet, you will only be able to use one network from your
Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic

 Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every
node on that link being a member of the same network
Benefits of Subnetting

1) Reduced network traffic

2) Optimized network performance

3) Simplified management

4) Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances

How to create Subnets

 Determine the number of required network IDs:

 One for each subnet
 One for each wide area network connection
 Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
 One for each TCP/IP host
 One for each router interface
 Based on the above requirements, create the following:
 One subnet mask for your entire network
 A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
 A range of host IDs for each subnet
Subnetting a Class A/B/C Address

• How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?

• How many valid hosts per subnet are available?

• What are the valid subnets?

• What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?

• What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

 Practice Example #1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
Network 192.168.10.0

 How many subnets?

Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000), the answer would be 21= 2.
 How many hosts per subnet?
We have 7 host bits off (10000000), so the equation would be 27– 2 = 126
hosts.
 What are the valid subnets?
256 – 128 = 128. Remember, we’ll start at zero and count in our block size, so
our subnets are 0, 128.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet?
The number right before the value of the next subnet is all host bits turned on
and equals the broadcast address. For the zero subnet, the next subnet is 128, so
the broadcast of the 0 subnet is 127.
 What are the valid hosts?
These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address
 Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)
Network 192.168.10.0

 How many subnets?

224 is 11100000, so our equation would be 23 = 8.

 How many hosts?

25– 2 = 30.

 What are the valid subnets?

256 – 224 = 32. We just start at zero and count to the subnet mask value
in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224.

 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet (always the number right
before the next subnet)?

 What are the valid hosts (the numbers between the subnet number and
the broadcast address)?
 Practice Example #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
Network 172.16.0.0

Subnets? 21 = 2

Hosts? 215– 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth)

Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128. Remember that subnetting is

performed in the third octet, so the subnet numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0

Broadcast address for each subnet?

Valid hosts?
 Practice Example #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)
Network 172.16.0.0

•Subnets? 24= 16.

•Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.

•Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 0, 16, 32, 48, etc., up to 240.

•Broadcast address for each subnet?

•Valid hosts?
 Networks
VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK
Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

VLSM is a procedure of partitioning an IP, organize into the subnets of various

sizes without squandering IP addresses

When we perform Subnetting, all subnets have a similar number of hosts,

this is known as FLSM (Fixed length subnet cover)

In FLSM all subnets use same subnet mask, this lead to inefficiencies.
All things considered, situation, some subnets may require vast number of host
addresses while other may require just couple of locations.
For instance, assume that you are a network administrator at Software
Company. Company has three departments connected with wan links.
Development department has 74 computers.
Production department has 52 computers.
Administrative department has 28 computers.

All departments are connected with each other via wan link. Production
Each wan link requires two IP addresses. Department
52 Computers

Development
Department
74 Computers

Administrative Department
52 Computers
 With FLSM, we have two choice to accumulate this,
either purchase a class B IP address
or
purchase at least two Class C IP addresses
First choice (purchase a class B IP address)

172.168.1.0/23 255.255.127.0 255.255.11111110.00000000

To Calculate No of Subnets in a network 2x = 27 = 128

To calculate no of Hosts in a subnet 2y – 2 = 29 -2 =510

Subnetting of this address would give us 128 subnets and 510 hosts in each
subnet.
Our network requires only 6 subnets and 160 addresses.
We would have to pay for 65356 addresses while you need only 160 addresses.
Every IP address adds more dollars in company bill. Would you consider this
address space for company?
Second choice (purchase at least two Class C IP addresses)

192.168.1.0/25
192.168.2.0/26

Subnetting of first address 192.168.1.0/25 would give us 2 subnets and 126 hosts
in each subnet.

Subnetting of second address 192.168.2.0/26 would give us 4 subnets and

62 hosts in each subnet.

Collectively we are getting 6 subnets and 500 hosts from these two address
spaces.

We are still wasting more than 300 IP address, and we would have to purchase
two address spaces.
Variable Length Subnet Mask

VLSM is a process of breaking down subnets into the smaller subnets, according to the
need of individual networks

VLSM Subnetting

Steps for VLSM Subnetting

Find the largest segment. Segment which need largest number of hosts
address
Do Subnetting to fulfill the requirement of largest segment
Assign the appropriate subnet mask for the largest segment
For second largest segments, take one of these newly created subnets and
apply a different, more appropriate, subnet mask to it
Assign the appropriate subnet mask for the second largest segment
Repeat this process until the last network
How about we comprehend it with above case. Our organization requires 6
subnets and 160 hosts

Step 1:- Oder all segments according the hosts requirement (Largest to
smallest).

Subnet Segment Hosts

1 Development 74
2 Production 52
3 Administrative 28
4 Wan link 1 2
5 Wan link 2 2
6 Wan link 3 2
Step 2 :- Do Subnetting for largest segment. Our largest segment needs 74 host
addresses. /25 provide us two subnets with 126 hosts in each subnet.

192.168.1.0/25

Subnet Subnet 1 Subnet 2

Network ID 192.168.1.0 192.168.1.128
First host address 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.129
Last host address 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.254
Broadcast ID 192.168.1.127 192.168.1.255
Step 3 :- Assign subnet mask to the largest segment. As you can see in above
table, subnet 1 fulfill our largest segment requirement. Assign it to our segment.

Segment Development
Requirement 74
CIDR /25
Subnet mask 255.255.255.128
Network ID 192.168.1.0
First hosts 192.168.1.1
Last hosts 192.168.1.126
Broadcast ID 192.168.1.127
Step 4 :- Do subnetting for second largest segment from next available subnet. Next
segment requires 52 host addresses. Subnetting of /25 has given us two subnets with 128
hosts in each, from that we have assigned first subnet to development segment. Second
segment is available, we would do subnetting of this.

/26 provide us 4 subnets with 62 hosts in each subnet.

192.168.1.0/26

Subnet Subnet 1 Subnet 2 Subnet 3 Subnet 4

Network ID 0 64 128 192

First address 1 65 129 193

Last address 62 126 190 254

Broadcast ID 63 127 191 255

We cannot use subnet 1 and subnet 2 ( address from 0 to 127 ) as they are already
assigned to development department. We can assign subnet 3 to our production
department.

Segment Production
Requirement 52
CIDR /26
Subnet mask 255.255.255.192
Network ID 192.168.1.128
First hosts 192.168.1.129
Last hosts 192.168.1.190
Broadcast ID 192.168.1.191
 Networks
NETWORK DEVICES
Network Interface Card (NIC)

NIC stands on first place. Without this device, networking cannot be done.

This is also known as network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card

A PC uses parallel data transmission technology to transmit data between its

internal parts while the media that connects this PC with other PCs uses serial
data transmission technology

A NIC converts parallel data stream into serial data stream and vice versa
serial data stream is get converted in parallel data stream.
Types of NICs

There are two types of NICs

Media Specific :- Different types of NICs are required to connect with

different types of media. For example we cannot connect wired media with
wireless NIC card. Just like this, we cannot connect coaxial cable with Ethernet
LAN card. We have to use the LAN card that is particularly built for the media
type which we have.

Network Design Specific :- A specific network design needs a specific LAN

card. For example FDDI, Token Ring and Ethernet have their own distinctive
type of NICs card. They cannot use other’s NIC card.
 4 RJ45 NIC
1 BNC and 1 RJ45 NIC

PCMCIA for Laptops

Single RJ45 NIC

Token Ring NIC

HUB

HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single workgroup LAN network.

Typically HUBs are available with 4,8,12,24,48 ports.

Based on port type, there are two types of HUB:-

Ethernet HUB :- In this type of HUB all ports have RJ-45 connectors.

Combo HUB :- In this type of HUB ports have several different types of
connectors such RJ-45, BNC, and AUI.

For Example a HUB which has four ports. Ports share everything. One port

received data signal from its connected device. It will make three copies of data

signal from HUB and give one copy to each port. Receiver port doesn’t need a

copy of data signal for itself as it has it the original version.

When a hub receives signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that
signal from all ports except the port on which the signal arrived

There are two types of HUB

 
Passive HUB:- It forwards the data signal from all ports except the port on
which signal arrived. It doesn’t interfere in data signal.

 
Active HUB:- It also forwards the data signal from all
ports except the port on which signal arrived. But before
forwarding, it improves quality of data signal by
amplifying it. Due to this added features active HUB
is also known as repeaters.
Bridge

Bridge is used to divide a large network in smaller segments.

For example a network has 70 nodes.

Without segmentation all these nodes will share same collision domain that
will bring down overall network performance.

To run a network smoothly we should not place more than 20 nodes in a

collision domain.

To deal with this situation we can use Bridge.

Bridge has per port collision domain which means if a port faces collision,
other ports will not effect from this collision.
Basic function of Bridge are following :-
•Break a large network in smaller segments.
•Join different media types such as UTP with fiber optic.
•Join different network architectures such as Ethernet with Token Ring.

There are three types of bridge:-

Local Bridge :- This bridge connects two LAN segments directly. In Ethernet
Implementation it is known as Transparent bridge. In Token Ring network it is
called Source-Routed bridge
Remote Bridge :-
This bridge connects with another
bridge over the WAN link.

Wireless Bridge :- This bridge connects with another bridge without wiring
between them.
In OSI Layer model Bridge works at physical layer and data link layer.

Bridges have following issues :-

•Bridges have limited ports

•In bridge forward decision are made through the software which slow down
overall performance of network

•Bridges use age old technology which is not capable to fulfill the requirement
of modern networks effectively

Switch and Router solves these issues

Switch

Just like Hub and Bridge, switch is also used to connect multiple computers
together in a LAN segment.
Switches available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports.
Each switch port has a separate collision domain.
Switch works at layer two in OSI Layer model.
At layer two data signals are formatted in frames.
When a switch receives frame, it checks FCS (Frame checksum sequence) field
in it.
Switch process the frame only if it is valid.
All invalided frames are automatically dropped.
All valid frames are processed and forwarded to their destination MAC
address.
Switches support three methods of switching

•Store and Forward

•Cut and Through
•Fragment Free

Store and Forward

This is the basic mode of switching. In this mode Switch buffers entire frame
into the memory and run FCS (Frame Check Sequence) to ensure that frame is
valid and not corrupted.
A frame less than 64bytes and higher than 1518bytes is invalid.
Only valid frames are processed and all invalid frames are automatically
dropped.
Among these three methods, this method has highest latency.
Latency is the time taken by device in passing frame from it.
Cut and Through

Cut and Through method has lowest latency.

In this method Switch only read first six bytes from frame after the preamble.
These six bytes are the destination address of frame.

This is the fastest method of switching.

This method also process invalid frames.

Only advantage of this method is speed.

Fragment Free

This is a hybrid version of Store and Forward method and Cut and Through
method.

It takes goodies from both methods and makes a perfect method for switching.

It checks first 64 bytes of frame for error. It processes only those frames that
have first 64bytes valid.

Any frame less than 64 bytes is known as runt. Runt is an invalid frame type.

This method filters runt while maintaining the speed.

Routers

Router is a layer three device which forwards data packet from one logical
network segment to another.

Router forwards packets on the bases of their destination address. For this router
keeps record of the path that packets can use as they move across the network.

These records are maintained in a database table known as routing table.

Routing table can be built statically or dynamically

Basically routers are used :-

To connect different network segments.

To connect different network protocols such as IP and IPX.

To connect several smaller networks into a large network (known as

internetwork)

To break a large network in smaller networks (Known as subnet usually created

to improve the performance or manageability)

To connect two different media types such as UTP and fiber optical.

To connect two different network architectures such as token ring and Ethernet.

To connect LAN network with Telco company’s office (Known as DTE device).

To access DSL services (known as DSL Router).