Chapter Four: Communication Network Protocols

Topics:
4.1. Network protocol
4.2. Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol suites
4.3. Network Standards and standardization bodies

4.1. Network Protocol Overview

Networking protocols define a common format and set of rules for exchanging messages between devices.

Some common networking protocols are Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), and Internet Protocol (IP).

Communication between a web server and web client is an example of an interaction between several protocols:

• HTTP - an application protocol that governs the way a web server and a web client interact.

• TCP - transport protocol that manages the individual conversations.

• IP – encapsulates the TCP segments into packets, assigns addresses, and delivers to the destination host.

• Ethernet - allows communication over a data link and the physical transmission of data.

A protocol suite is a set of protocols that work together to provide comprehensive network communication
services.

 May be specified by a standards organization or developed by a vendor.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, the protocols are freely available, and any vendor is able to
implement these protocols on their hardware or in their software’s the network media.

Computer Network Addressing

In the internet employing TCP/IP protocol, we have four levels of addresses being in use for different layers.

 Physical address
  Logical address (IP)

 Port address and

 Specific address

1. MAC Addresses (Physical Address):

It is further included inside the frame which is utilized by the DLL (data link layer) of OSI model. It is the bottom-
most layer (bottom-most address in OSI model) address. The Ethernet (LAN) uses a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address which is normally produced in the network interfacing card (NIC). A MAC address is most often
represented in hexadecimal, using one of two accepted formats: 00:43: AB: F2:32:13 or 0043.ABF2.3213

2. Logical Address (IP Addresses):

Logical addressing is a function of the Network layer of the OSI Model (Layer-3), and provides a hierarchical
structure to separate networks. A logical address contains two components:

• Network ID – identifies which network a host belongs to.

• Host ID – uniquely identifies the host on that network.

The logical address is also called the IP (Internet Protocol) address. The logical address used on the internet is
currently a 32-bit address.

3. Port Address:

The IP and Physical address are essential for any level of data traveling from the certain specific source to the
destination host that is required. But in today’s modern computers, we may require to run multiple processes on it
simultaneously. Let us suppose a computer says ‘A’ first initiate communication with another computer named ‘C’
by using TELNET. Further, consider now, the same computer ‘A’ communicates with any computer ‘B’
simultaneously by means of the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

The main objective of the internet is the process to process communications. For this purpose, it is necessary to
label or name a specific process. Thus the process needs addresses. The label that is allocated to a process is known
as the port address. It is a 16 bit address field. The physical addresses change for each and every trip a packet takes,
but the logical and port addresses basically will remain as it is.

4. Specific Addresses:
A few of the applications generally have simple (easy to use) address. Examples of specific addresses are the e-mail
addresses of the Universal Resource Locators (URL). Examples mainly consist of the email address
(cs@gmail.com) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL), example (www.gmail.com).

IP Addressing and Sub-netting

Internet Protocol (IP)

IP provides two fundamental Network layer services:

• Logical addressing – provides a unique address that identifies both the host, and the network that host
exists on.

• Routing – determines the best path to a particular destination network, and then routes data accordingly.

IPv4 employs a 32-bit address, which limits the number of possible addresses to 4,294,967,296. IPv4 will
eventually be replaced by IP Version 6 (IPv6), due to a shortage of available IPv4 addresses.

IPv4 Addressing

A core function of IP is to provide logical addressing for hosts. An IP address provides a hierarchical structure to
both uniquely identify a host, and what network that host exists on. An IP address is most often represented in
decimal, in the following format: 158.80.164.3. An IP address is comprised of four octets, separated by periods:

First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth Octet

158 80 164 3

Each octet is an 8-bit number, resulting in a 32-bit IP address. The smallest possible value of an octet is 0, or
00000000 in binary. The largest possible value of an octet is 255, or 11111111 in binary.

The above IP address represented in binary would look as follows:

First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth Octet

10011110 01010000 10100100 00000011

The Subnet Mask

Part of an IP address identifies the network. The other part of the address identifies the host.
A subnet mask is required to provide this distinction: 158.80.164.3 255.255.0.0

The above IP address has a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. The subnet mask follows two rules:

• If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the address identifies the
network.

• If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the address identifies the host.

Looking at the above address and subnet mask in binary:

IP Address: 10011110.01010000.10100100.00000011

Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

The first 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 1. Thus, the first 16 bits of the address (158.80) identify the network.
The last 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 0. Thus, the last 16 bits of the address (164.3) identify the unique host
on that network.

The network portion of the subnet mask must be contiguous. For example, a subnet mask of 255.0.0.255 is not
valid.

IP Address Classes

The IPv4 address space has been structured into several classes. The value of the first octet of an address
determines the class of the network:

Class First Octet Range Default Subnet Mask

Class A 1 - 127 255.0.0.0

Class B 128 - 191 255.255.0.0

Class C 192 - 223 255.255.255.0

Class D 224 - 239 -

Class E 240-255 -
Class A networks range from 1 to 127. The default subnet mask is 255.0.0.0. Thus, by default, the first octet defines
the network, and the last three octets define the host. This results in a maximum of 127 Class A networks, with
16,777,214 hosts per network!

Example of a Class A address:

Address: 64.32.254.100
Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

Class B networks range from 128 to 191. The default subnet mask is 255.255.0.0. Thus, by default, the first two
octets define the network, and the last two octets define the host. This results in a maximum of 16,384 Class B
networks, with 65,534 hosts per network.

Example of a Class B address:

Address: 152.41.12.195
Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0

Class C networks range from 192 to 223. The default subnet mask is 255.255.255.0. Thus, by default, the first three
octets define the network, and the last octet defines the host. This results in a maximum of 2,097,152 Class C
networks, with 254 hosts per network.
Example of a Class C address:

Address: 207.79.233.6
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Class D networks are reserved for multicast traffic. Class D addresses do not use a subnet mask.

Class E networks are reserved for research and experimental use.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing).

Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for assigning IP addresses without using the standard IP
address classes like Class A, Class B or Class C. It is a newer addressing scheme for IP Networks which allows for
a more efficient allocation of IP addresses than the older method which was by assigning organizations a class of
IPs.
For example, rather than assigning a Class C block, you can use a network prefix of 27 bits and assign the block of
32 IP Addresses. This allows for address assignments that can better fit an organization's specific needs with very
little waste of IP addresses.

CIDR and subnetting is virtually the same thing. The term Subnetting is generally used when you use it at the
organizational level. CIDR is generally used when you it at the ISP level or higher.

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a simplified method of representing a subnet mask.

It identifies the number of binary bits set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, preceded by a slash.

For example, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 would be represented as follows in binary:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

The first 28 bits of the above subnet mask are set to 1. The CIDR notation for this subnet mask would thus be /28.

The CIDR mask is often appended to the IP address. For example, an IP address of 192.168.1.1 and a subnet mask
of 255.255.255.0 would be represented as follows using CIDR notation:

192.168.1.1 /24

CIDR is also super-neting in contrast to sub-netting.

Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two or more smaller networks. It increases routing efficiency, enhances
the security of the network and reduces the size of the broadcast domain.

Difference between Sub-netting and Super-netting

S.NO Sub-netting Super-netting

1. Sub-netting is the procedure to While super-netting is the procedure of

divide the network into sub-networks. combine the small networks.

2. In sub-netting, Network addresses’ While in super-netting, Host addresses’ bits

bits are increased. are increased.

In sub-netting, The mask bits are moved While In super-netting, The mask bits are
towards right. moved towards left.

3. Sub-netting is implemented via While super-netting is implemented via

Variable-length subnet masking. Classless inter-domain routing.

4. In sub-netting, Address depletion is While It is used for simplify routing process.

reduced or removed.

5.

Address Classes vs. Subnet Mask

Remember the following three rules:

• The first octet on an address dictates the class of that address.

• The subnet mask determines what part of an address identifies the network, and what part identifies the
host.

• Each class has a default subnet mask. A network using its default subnet mask is referred to as a classful
network.

For example, 10.1.1.1 is a Class A address, and its default subnet mask is 255.0.0.0 (/8 in CIDR).

It is entirely possible to use subnet masks other than the default. For example, a Class B subnet mask can be applied
to a Class A address: 10.1.1.1 /16

However, this does not change the class of the above address. It remains a Class A address, which has been
subnetted using a Class B mask. Remember, the only thing that determines the class of an IP address is the first
octet of that address. Likewise, the subnet mask is the only thing that determines what part of an address identifies
the network, and what part identifies the host.

Subnet and Broadcast Addresses

On each IP network, two host addresses are reserved for special use:

• The subnet (or network) address

• The broadcast address

Neither of these addresses can be assigned to an actual host. The subnet address is used to identify the network
itself. A routing table contains a list of known networks, and each network is identified by its subnet address.
Subnet addresses contain all 0 bits in the host portion of the address.

For example, 192.168.1.0/24 is a subnet address. This can be determined by looking at the address and subnet mask
in binary:

IP Address: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000

Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.1 1111111.00000000

Note that all host bits in the address are set to 0.

The broadcast address identifies all hosts on a particular network. A packet sent to the broadcast address will be
received and processed by every host on that network. Broadcast addresses contain all 1 bits in the host portion of
the address.

For example, 192.168.1.255/24 is a broadcast address. Note that all host bits are set to 1:

IP Address: 11000000.10101000.00000001.11111111

Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Broadcasts are one of three types of IP packets:

• Unicasts are packets sent from one host to one other host

• Multicasts are packets sent from one host to a group of hosts

• Broadcasts are packets sent from one host to all other hosts on the local network
A router, by default, will never forward a multicast or broadcast packet from one interface to another.

A switch, by default, will forward a multicast or broadcast packet out every port, except for the port that originated
the multicast or broadcast.

Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of creating new networks (or subnets) by borrowing bits from the host portion of a subnet
mask. There is one caveat: borrowing bits from hosts creates more networks but fewer hosts per network.

Consider the following Class C network:

192.168.254.0

The default subnet mask for this network is 255.255.255.0. This single network can be segmented, or subnetted,
into multiple networks. For example, assume a minimum of 10 new networks are required. Resolving this is
possible using the following magical formula:

2 n the exponent ‘n’ identifies the number of bits to borrow from the host portion of the subnet mask. The default
Class C mask (255.255.255.0) looks as follows in binary:

11111111.1111111.1111111.00000000

There are a total of 24 bits set to 1, which are used to identify the network.

There are a total of 8 bits set to 0, which are used to identify the host, and these host bits can be borrowed.

Borrowed bits essentially involves changing host bits (set to 0 or off) in the subnet mask to network bits (set to 1 or
on). Remember, network bits in a subnet mask must always be contiguous - skipping bits is not allowed.

Consider the result if three bits are borrowed. Using the above formula:

2n= 23= 8 = 8 new networks created

However, a total of 8 new networks do not meet the original requirement of at least 10 networks. Consider the
result if four bits are borrowed:

2n= 24= 16 = 16 new networks created

A total of 16 new networks does meet the original requirement. Borrowing four host bits results in the following
new subnet mask:
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 = 255.255.255.240

In the previous example, a Class C network was subnetted to create 16 new networks, using a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240 (or /28 in CIDR). Four bits were borrowed in the subnet mask, leaving only four bits for hosts.

To determine the number of hosts this results in, for each of the new 16 networks, a slightly modified formula is
required:

2n – 2 where n is remaining host bit.

Consider the result if four bits are available for hosts:

2n – 2 = 24 – 2 = 16 – 2 = 14, usable hosts per network. Thus, subnetting a Class C network with a /28 mask creates
16 new networks, with 14 usable hosts per network.

Why is the formula for calculating usable hosts 2n – 2? Because it is never possible to assign a host an address with
all 0 or all 1 bits in the host portion of the address. These are reserved for the subnet and broadcast addresses,
respectively. Thus, every time a network is subnetted, useable host addresses are lost.

The 2n-2 Rule and Subnetted Networks

To avoid confusion, it was historically unacceptable to use the first and last new networks created when subnetting,
as it is possible for a classful network to have the same subnet and broadcast address as its subnetted networks. This
required the 2n – 2 formula to also be used when calculating the number of new networks created while subnetting.

Remember though, the formula for calculating usable hosts is always 2n – 2.

Determining the Range of Subnetted Networks

Determining the range of the newly created networks can be accomplished using several methods. The long method
involves some binary magic.

How to Calculate Subnets

Subnets and Hosts

Borrow 2 bits

S S H H H H H H
# of subnets = 22 = 4

Subnet mask = 2 bits = 128 + 64 = 192

Range of hosts =2rhb = 26 = 64, where rhb is remaining host bit.

IP Address Range Useable Network address Broadcast Address

Range

0 – 63 1- 62 192.168.254..0 192.168.254..63
192.168.254.0
64 – 127 65 – 126 192.168.254..64 192.168.254..127

128 – 191 129 – 190 192.168.254..128 192.168.254..191

192 – 255 193- 254 192.168.254..192 192.168.254..255

Consider the example 192.168.254.0 network again, which was subnetted using a 255.255.255.240 mask:

192.168.254.0: 11000000.10101000.11111110.00000000

255.255.255.240: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

Subnetting borrowed four bits in the fourth octet, creating a total of 16 new networks. Looking at only the fourth
octet, the first newly created network is 0000. The second new network is 0001. Calculating all possible
permutations of the four borrow bits:

Calculating the ranges of subnetted networks can quickly become tedious when using the long binary method. The
shortcut method involves taking the subnet mask (255.255.255.240 from the previous example), and subtracting the
subnetted octet (240) from 256.

256 – 240 = 16

Assuming ip subnet-zero is enabled; the first network will begin at 0. Then, simply continue adding 16 to identify
the first address of each new network:

0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240

Knowing the first address of each new network makes it simple to determine the last address of each network:

First address of network 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144

Last address of network 15 31 47 63 79 95 111 127 143 159

Only the first 10 networks were calculated, for brevity. The first address of each network becomes the subnet
address for that network. The last address of each network becomes the broadcast address for that network. Once
the first and last address of each network is known, determining the usable range for hosts is straightforward:

variable-length subnet mask (VLSM)

Variable-Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) amounts to subnetting subnets, which means that VLSM allows network
engineers to divide an IP address space into a hierarchy of subnets of different sizes, making it possible to create
subnets with very different host counts without wasting large numbers of addresses.

The subnet design uses more than one mask in the same network which means more than one mask is used for
different subnets of a single class A, B, C or a network. It is used to increase the usability of subnets as they can be
of variable size.

Fixed-Length Subnet Masking (FLSM) creates subnets all the same size. But where some subnets will have many
hosts and some have few, FLSM results in some subnets having many orphaned addresses, or some sets of hosts
being too big to fit into a subnet. Where VLSM is enabled, a large subnet can be divided into a set of smaller sub-
subnets, which can be used to handle smaller sets of hosts.

Procedure of implementing VLSM

In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so subnetting is required multiple times. Suppose there is an
administrator that has four departments to manage. These are CS with 120 computers, IT with 50 computers, SW
with 26 computers and IS department with 5 computers.

If the administrator has IP 192.168.1.0/24, department wise IPs can be allocated by following these steps:

1. For each segment select the block size that is greater than or equal to the actual requirement which is the
sum of host addresses, broadcast addresses and network addresses. Make a list of subnets possible:

Table: - possible subnets list

2. Arrange all the segments in descending order based on the block size that is from highest to lowest
requirement.
 CS: 120
 IT: 50
  SW: 26
 IS: 5
3. The highest IP available has to be allocated to highest requirement so the CS department gets
192.168.1.0/25 which has 126 valid addresses that can easily be available for 120 hosts. The subnet mask
used is 255.255.255.128
4. The next segment requires an IP to handle 50 hosts. The IP subnet with network number 192.168.1.128/26
is the next highest which can be assigned to 62 hosts thus fulfilling the requirement of IT. The subnet mask
used is 255.255.255.192.
5. Similarly the next IP subnet 192.168.1.192/27 can fulfill the requirements of SW department as it has 30
valid hosts IP which can be assigned to 26 computers. The mask used is 255.255.255.224
6. The last segment requires 5 valid hosts IP which can be fulfilled by the subnet 192.168.1.224/29 which has
the mask as 255.255.255.248 is chosen as per the requirement. The IP with the mask 255.255.255.240 could
be chosen but it has 14 valid hosts IPs and the requirement is less in comparison so the one that is
comparable with the requirement is chosen. Thus there is less IP wastage in VLSM as compared to FLSM.

Advantages of VLSM over FLSM

In Fixed length subnet mask subnetting (FLSM), all subnets are of equal size and have equal number of hosts but in
VLSM the size is variable and it can have variable number of hosts thus making the IP addressing more efficient by
allowing a routed system of different mask length to suit requirements.

In FLSM there is wastage of IP addresses but in VLSM there is a minimum wastage of IP addresses.

FLSM is preferred for private IP addresses while for public IP addresses VLSM is the best option.

Private vs. Public IPv4 Addresses

The rapid growth of the Internet resulted in a shortage of available IPv4 addresses. In response, a specific subset of
the IPv4 address space was designated as private, to temporarily alleviate this problem. A public address can be
routed on the Internet. Thus, hosts that must be Internet-accessible must be configured with (or reachable by) public
addresses. Allocation of public addresses is governed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

A private address is intended for internal use within a home or organization, and can be freely used by anyone.
However, private addresses can never be routed on the Internet. In fact, Internet routers are configured to
immediately drop traffic with private addresses. Three private address ranges were defined in RFC 1918, one for
each IPv4 class:
  Class A 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8),
 Class B 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12)
 Class C 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16)

By universally recognizing these ranges as private and non-routable in the Internet, multiple organizations can use
these ranges internally without causing a conflict with public Internet addresses

It is possible to translate between private and public addresses, using Network Address Translation (NAT). NAT
allows a host configured with a private address to be stamped with a public address, thus allowing that host to
communicate across the Internet. It is also possible to translate multiple privately-addressed hosts to a single public
address, which conserves the public address space.

NAT provides an additional benefit – hiding the specific addresses and addressing structure of the internal (or
private) network.

Note: NAT is not restricted to private-to-public address translation, though that is the most common application.
NAT can also perform public-to-public address translation, as well as private-to-private address translation.

NAT is only a temporarily solution to the address shortage problem. IPv4 will eventually be replaced with IPv6,
which supports a vast address space.

Both NAT and IPv6 are covered extensively in other guides.

Reserved IPv4 Addresses

In addition to the three private IPv4 ranges, several other addresses and ranges are reserved for specific purposes:

 The 0.0.0.0 /0 network is used to identify all networks, and is referred to as the default route. If a default
route exists in a routing table, it will be used only if there is not a more specific route to a particular
destination. Routing and default routes are covered extensively in another guide.
 The 0.0.0.0 /8 ranges are used to identify hosts on the local network.
 Addresses in this range can only be used as a source address. The most commonly used address in this range
is 0.0.0.0 /32, which a host will use when dynamically attempting to learn its IP address via Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP). DHCP is covered extensively in another guide.
 The entire 127.x.x.x /8 range is reserved for diagnostic purposes. The most commonly used address in this
range is 127.0.0.1, which identifies the local host, and is referred to as the loopback or localhost address.
  The 169.254.x.x /16 range is reserved for Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). A host assigns itself
an address in this range, if it cannot dynamically obtain an address from a DHCP server.
 The 224.x.x.x – 239.x.x.x ranges are reserved for multicast, and are referred to as Class D addresses.
 The 240.x.x.x – 255.x.x.x ranges are reserved for future and experimental use, and were formerly referred to
as Class E addresses.
 The 255.255.255.255 address can be used as a broadcast address for the local network.

1. What is Network protocol?

2. List the Classes with their ranges?
3. What is the difference between VLSM and FLSM?
4. Discuss the difference between Subnetting and Super-netting?

4.2. Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol suites

It is used in the grandparent of all wide area computer networks, the ARPANET and its successor, the worldwide
Internet

 Developed by Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure and preserve data integrity as well as maintain
communication in the event of catastrophic war.

 It’s a network model used in current internet architecture

 Used to connect remote machines

 A model designed to standardize computer networking

TCP/IP Protocol Stack

Application Layer:
• Responsible for process to process communication

• Some of the protocols used in Application Layer

• Telnet - allows a user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet client, to access the resources of
another machine, the Telnet server.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is the protocol used to transfer files, and it can accomplish this
between any two machines using it.

• Network File System (NFS) - a protocol specializing in file sharing allowing two different types of
file systems to interoperate.

• Some of the protocols used in Application Layer

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - uses a spooled, or queued, method of mail delivery.

• POP3 is used to receive mail.

• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - collects and manipulates valuable network
information.

• This protocol stands as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying managers of any
sudden turn of events.

• Domain Name Service (DNS) – resolves hostnames—specifically, Internet names, such as

www.ddu.edu.et to the IP address 10.6.10.3

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - gives IP addresses to hosts.

• It allows easier administration and works well in small-to-even-very large network

environments.

Transport Layer:
• End to end delivery of segments (user datagram)
 • Some of the protocols used in Transport Layer

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - takes large blocks of information from an application and
breaks them into segments.

• It numbers and sequences each segment so that the destination’s TCP protocol can put the
segments back into the order the application intended.

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - does not sequence the segments and does not care in which
order the segments arrive at the destination.

• But after that, UDP sends the segments off and forgets about them. It doesn’t follow through,
check up on them, or even allow for an acknowledgment of safe arrival — complete
abandonment.

• TCP for reliability and UDP for faster transfers.

Network Layer:
• Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and destination computer.

• The communication is host to host

• Responsible for choosing the best route for each packet

• Protocols are:

• IP

• Internet Protocol (IP) essentially is the Internet layer.

• The other protocols found here merely exist to support it.

• It can do this because all the machines on the network have a software, or logical address
called an IP address.

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )

• Works at the Network layer and is used by IP for many different services.

• ICMP is a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.

• The following are some common events and messages that ICMP relates to:

• Destination Unreachable If a router can’t send an IP datagram any further; it

uses ICMP to send a message back to the sender, advising it of the situation.

• Buffer Full If a router’s memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is

full, it will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion abates
(stops).
 • Each IP datagram is allotted a certain number of routers, called Hops, to pass through.

• If it reaches its limit of hops before arriving at its destination, the last router to receive that datagram
deletes it.

• The executioner router then uses ICMP to send a message, informing the sending machine of the end
of its datagram.

• Ping (Packet Internet Groper) uses ICMP echo messages to check the physical and logical
connectivity of machines on a network.

• Traceroute Using ICMP timeouts, Traceroute is used to discover the path a packet takes as it
traverses an internetwork.

Data link Layer:

• Responsible for taking datagrams and encapsulates it into a packet called frame.

• Data link layer has two sub-layers:

• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control

• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

Physical Layer:
• Responsible for carrying individual bits

• The lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite

• Connected by transmission medium (cable, air)

• The transmission medium carries electrical or optical signals

Network Access Layer:

• A network access layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• It is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.

• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.

• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the
network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
 • The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO (International It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Standard Organization). Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic protocol used It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
as a communication gateway between the network and development of an internet. It is a communication protocol
the end user. that provides the connection among the hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a The transport layer does not provide the surety for the
guarantee for the delivery of the packets. delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it is a
reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

It is also known as a reference model through which It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
various networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP
model is built from the OSI model. It is also referred to
as a guidance tool.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
replaced when the technology changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and interfaces In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and interfaces
as well as provides a proper distinction between them. are not properly separated.

It is protocol independent. It is protocol dependent.

1. What is TCP/IP protocol suite?

2. What is the difference between TCP/IP and OSI model?
3. List all the layers of TCP/IP?
4. List some of the protocols used in Application Layer?

4.3. Network Standards and standardization bodies

An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards organizations and
are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards. The intent is that all data
communications equipment manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The primary standards
organizations for data communication are:
1. International Standard Organization (ISO)
ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised mainly of
members from the standards committee of various governments throughout the world. It is even responsible for
developing models which provides high level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved
productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other
standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva,
Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, email and
directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension
Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many
countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is comprised of electronics,
computer and communications engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional society with over
200,000 members. It develops communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal of
advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical engineering.
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting representative for the ISO.
ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of data
processing equipment and services. ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies,
industry associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)
 EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. EIA activities
include standards development, increasing public awareness, and lobbying and it is responsible for developing
the RS (recommended standard) series of standards for data and communications.
6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. It facilitates
business development opportunities through market development, trade promotion, trade shows, and standards
development. It represents manufacturers of communications and information technology products and also
facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.

1. List the primary standards organizations for data communication?

2. What is a network standard?

Summary Questions: