CHAPTER FOUR

PLASTICS, RUBBER AND

FIBERS

1
 Introduction To Polymers
 Polymers are materials composed of long molecular chains that
are well-accepted for a wide variety of applications.
 This unit explores these materials in terms of their chemical
composition, associated properties and processes of manufacture
from petrochemicals.
 The unit also shows a range of products in which polymers are
used and explains why they are chosen in preference to many
conventional materials.
 A polymer is a giant molecule made up of a large number of
repeating units joined together by covalent bonds. The simple
compounds from which polymers are made are called
monomers.
 The word polymer is derived from the Greek words poly (many)
and meros (parts).

2
 Cont…
 Polymer molecules have molecular weight in the range of several
thousand or more, and therefore, are also referred to as
macromolecules.
 Some polymers are derived from the mutual reaction of two or
more monomers.
 For example, poly (hexamethylene adipamide) or nylon-6, 6 is
made from the reaction of hexamethylene diamine and adipic
acid, as shown in the following equation:
NHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH + nH2N-(CH2)6-NH2 → [HO-OC-(CH2)4-CO-NH-
(CH2)6-NH2-] n
adipic acid hexamethylene diamine poly(hexamethylene
adipamide)
3
 For a molecule to be a monomer, it must be at least bifunctional.
 Cont…
 The functionality of a molecule refers to its interlinking capacity, or

the number of sites it has available for bonding with other

molecules.
 Reactions between nonfunctional molecules use up the reactive
groups completely and render the product incapable of further
reactions, whereas the presence of two condensable groups in both
hexamethylene diamine (-NH2) and adipic acid (-COOH) makes each
of these monomers bifunctional with the ability to form polymers.
 The number of repeating units in the polystyrene structure is
indicated by the index n.
 This is known as the degree of polymerization (DP).
4
 Nomenclature of polymers

 A polymer can be named in one of two ways.

 Source-based nomenclature can be used when the monomer can
be identified.
 Alternatively, more explicit structure-based nomenclature can be
used when the polymer structure is proven.
 Where there is no confusion, some traditional names are also
acceptable.
 Whatever method is used, all polymer names have the prefix
poly, followed by enclosing marks around the rest of the name.
The marks are used in the order: {[( )]}.
5
 Cont…

 Locants indicate the position of structural features, e.g., poly(4-

chlorostyrene).
 If a source-based name is one word and has no locants, then
the enclosing marks are not essential, but they should be used
when there might be confusion,
 e.g., poly(chlorostyrene) is a polymer whereas
polychlorostyrene might be a small, multi-substituted molecule.
 End-groups are described with α- and ω-, e.g., α-chloro-ω-
hydroxy-polystyrene.

6
 Cont…

Source-Based Nomenclature

Homopolymers
• A homopolymer is named using the name of the real or
assumed monomer (the ‘source’) from which it is derived, e.g.,
poly (methyl methacrylate).
• Monomers can be named using IUPAC recommendations, or
well-established traditional names.
• Should ambiguity arise, class names can be added. For
example, the source-based name poly (vinyloxirane) could
correspond to either of the structures shown below.
7
 Cont…
 To clarify, the polymer is named using the polymer class name
followed by a colon and the name of the monomer, i.e., class
name: monomer name.
 Thus on the left and right, respectively, are polyalkylene:
vinyloxirane and polyether: vinyloxirane.

8
 Cont…
Non-linear polymers
• Non-linear polymers and copolymers, and polymer assemblies
are named using the italicized qualifiers.
• The qualifier, such as branch, is used as a prefix (P) when
naming a (co)polymer, or as a connective (C), e.g., comb,
between two polymer names.

(Co)polymer Qualifier Example

poly(3-hexylthiophene)-blend
Blend blend (C)
polystyrene
Comb comb (C) polystyrene-comb-polyisoprene

poly(2,3-dihydrothieno[3,4][1,4]dioxine)-
Complex compl (C)
compl poly(vinylbenzenesulfonic acid)a

9
 Cont…
Structure-Based Nomenclature
• In place of the monomer name used in source-based
nomenclature, structure based nomenclature uses that of the
preferred constitutional repeating unit (CRU).
• It can be determined as follows:

 
(i) A large enough part of the polymer chain is drawn to show
the structural repetition, e.g.
(ii) The smallest repeating portion is a CRU, so all such
possibilities are identified. In this case:

10
 Cont…
 The next step is to identify the subunits that make up each of
these structures, i.e., the largest divalent groups that can be
named using IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds.

11
 Cont…

• The preferred CRU is chosen as that with the lowest possible

locant (s) for substituents.
• In the above example, the oxy subunits in the CRUs are
heteroatom chains. From Figure 1, oxy subunits are senior to the
acyclic carbon chain subunits, the largest of which are bromo-
substituted -CH2-CH2- subunits.
• 1-Bromoethane-1, 2- diyl is chosen in preference to 2-
bromoethane-1, 2-diyl as the former has a lower locant for the
bromo-substituent.
• The preferred CRU is therefore oxy (1-bromoethane-1, 2-diyl)
and the polymer is thus named poly [oxy (1-bromoethane-1, 2-
diyl)].
12
 Methods of Polymerization
 Polymerization is the process in which monomer units are
linked by chemical reaction to form long chains.
 These long chains set polymers apart from other chemical
species and give them their unique characteristic properties.
 The polymer chains can be linear, branched, or cross-linked.

13
 Cont…

Addition and condensation polymerization

Addition: Polymers are synthesized in one of two ways.
 First, there are the addition polymers, which are formed by
addition reactions that link together monomers containing
multiple bonds.
 These polymers usually form via a free-radical mechanism in
which the multiple bonds is homiletically cleaved by light, heat or
with the assistance of a radical initiator, such as benzoyl peroxide.

14
 Cont…
They may be further classified as:
i. Bulk Polymerization:
 This mode of polymerization may be employed to obtain the purest form
of polymer, and the greatest yield of polymer per unit volume.
 This method involves only the monomer molecule, an initiator and a
chain transfer agent.
 Using continuous bulk polymerization processes, polystyrene and other
thermoplastic compounds may be moulded.
ii. Solution Polymerization:
 An inert solvent is added to the reacting components in the reaction
vessel in this process.
 The solvent enhances the heat capacity, thereby reducing the viscosity
and facilitating heat transfer.
 Some of the solvent may be refluxed to remove heat from the reaction
vessel.
 Solution Polymerization reduces both the reaction rate and the
molecular weight of the compounds as compared to bulk polymerization.
15
 Cont…

iii. Suspension Polymerization:

 In order to control the enormous amount of heat release in Bulk
Polymerization, Suspension Polymerization method was
developed.
 The reaction mass is dispersed as minute droplets of size 0.01 – 1
mm in diameter in a continuous aqueous phase.
 Each of these droplets act as tiny bulk reactors.
 Heat transfer occurs from the droplets to the water having large
heat capacity and low viscosity.
 Cooling jackets are used to facilitate heat removal.
 Polymerization produces small, uniform polymer spheres. 16
 Cont…
iv. Emulsion Polymerization:
 This is the most widely used method of polymerization.
 This process overcomes the difficulty of heat control and low
degree of polymerization.
 The organic reaction mass is emulsified with soap in a
continuous aqueous phase.
 The dispersed particles are smaller in size than in Suspension
Polymerization (≤ 0.1 µm).
 In addition, due to stabilizing action of soap, the emulsion
obtained is stable and agitation may not be necessary.
 The main product of Emulsion Polymerization is latex, which
forms the basis of the popular latex paints.
 By coagulating the latex with ionic salts and acids, solid rubber
may also be obtained.

17
 Cont…
V. Homogeneous Polymerization:
 In case of homogeneous bulk polymerization, the feed is a
gas, liquid or solid monomer.
 No initiators or additives are used.
 For homogeneous Solution polymerization, the monomer is
completely dissolved in a solvent.
VI. Heterogeneous Polymerization:
 In heterogeneous Emulsion polymerization, the monomer
molecules are emulsified in aqueous media in the form of
micelles.
 For heterogeneous Suspension polymerization, the monomer
is suspended in a n aqueous or other type of media as large
droplets.

18
 Cont…

Condensation:
 The second type of polymerization reaction produces
condensation polymers, which are formed when monomers
are linked together with the release of a smaller molecule,
such as water or hydrogen chloride.
 The monomers in these cases must contain two or more
functional groups.
 In all cases, when polymers are synthesized, the result is a
mixture of long chain molecules of varying lengths.
 Once the molecular chains are formed, it is possible for them
to be joined to each other by covalent bonds through a
process known as cross linking.

19
 Cont…

 The molecular chains in non-cross-linked polymers will usually slide

across each other, especially when heated, so that the polymer
softens and flows and can be molded to form a variety of shapes.
 Such polymers are called thermoplastic polymers.

 Cross-linked polymers are more rigid, hard and sometimes brittle

and are referred to as thermosetting polymers.
 a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde to produce a
polymer known as Bakelite.

20
 Effect of Polymer Structure on Properties
 Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes
based on the scale at which the property is defined as well as
upon its physical basis.
 The most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its
constituent monomers.
 A second set of properties, known as microstructure,
essentially describes the arrangement of these monomers
within the polymer at the scale of a single chain.
 These basic structural properties play a major role in
determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which
describe how the polymer behaves as a continuous
macroscopic material.

21
 Cont…

 Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe how the chains

interact through various physical forces.
 The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration)
relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along
the backbone of the chain.
 These are the elements of polymer structure that require the
breaking of a covalent bond in order to change.
 Structure has a strong influence on the other properties of a
polymer.

22
 Cont…

 For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different

durability, even though their molecules comprise the same
monomers.
 A polymer's architecture affects many of its physical properties.
 These includes solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various
solvents, transition temperature and the size of individual polymer
coils in solution.
 A variety of techniques may be employed for the synthesis of a
polymeric material with a range of architectures.

23
 Cont…

 The physical properties of a polymer are strongly dependent

on the size or length of the polymer chain.
 For example, as chain length is increased, melting and boiling
temperatures increase quickly. Impact resistance also tends to
increase with chain length, as does the viscosity.

24
 Cont…

 Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain

mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass
transition temperature.
 This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van
der Waals attractions and entanglements that come with
increased chain length.
 These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly
in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at
higher stresses and higher temperatures.

25
 Cont…

 The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much

elongating stress the material will endure before failure.
 This is very important in applications that rely upon a
polymer's physical str
 ength or durability.
 In general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain
length and cross linking of polymer chains.

26
 Plastics
Properties
 Plastics are organic materials of high molecular weight, which
can be molded into any desired form when subjected to heat
and pressure.
 Some possible answers are that plastics are lightweight,
strong, long lasting (durable), flexible, and available in all sorts
of shapes and colors.
 One plastic item has properties that are not shared by
another plastic item.

27
 Cont…

 For example, the clear plastic wrapping on items such as CDs

is easy to tear, while plastic detergent bottles are fairly sturdy.
 This suggests that there are different types of plastic, each
with its own physical properties.
 The first completely synthetic plastics to be commercially
produced were those made from phenol and formaldehyde.

28
 Cont…

 As petroleum became a major source of polymers the

development of plastics through the 20th century accelerated
and organic chemists invented sophisticated techniques that
allowed them to tailor a plastic for a specific purpose.
 Today, most synthetic plastics are produced from oil or natural
gas.
 Crude oil is composed of hydrocarbons that vary in length and
configuration and, as a result, have different properties.

29
 Cont…

 Even though the manufacture of most plastics begins with just

carbon and hydrogen, other elements can be involved.
 Oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, silicon, phosphorous, and
sulfur are added to hydrocarbon chains to create certain
plastics.
 Polyethylene (PET) contains only hydrogen and carbon, while
tetrafluoroethylene, better known as Teflon, contains fluorine
in place of the hydrogen atoms.

30
 Cont…

In recent years, plastics have attained great importance in every

part of our life, due to their certain properties like:
 Lightness in weight: Their specific gravity varies from 1 to 2.4.
 Good thermal and electrical insulation: They possess very low
thermal and electrical conductance.
 Corrosion-resistance: Plastic are highly resistant to corrosion.

 Easy workability: Casting, molding, drilling, sawing, machining,

etc. of plastics can be easily done.

31
 Cont…

 Chemical Inertness: Plastics are generally inert to the action of

lights, oils, acids and dampness.
 Transparency: Some plastics are highly transparent and
translucent. They can be ground and used as optical lenses.
 Low softening point: Most of the plastics have low softening
points, even as low as 50oC.

32
 Classification

• There are two categories of plastics:

Thermoplastics and thermosets
1. Thermoplastics
 Are those that can be continually and repeatedly formed and
reshaped with the application of heat and pressure.
 About 85% of all plastics produced are thermoplastics.
 Most recyclable plastics, such as polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride are
thermoplastics.

33
 Cont…

2. Thermosets
 Are those that cannot be reshaped once they are formed.
 This is usually because those plastics have been cross-linked,
and the cross-linked bonds cannot be broken.
 About 15% of all plastics produced are thermosets.
 Examples include polyester, polyurethane, and epoxy resins
such as silicone.

34
 Moulding Constituents of Plastics

 Most modern plastics are derived from natural materials such

as oil, coal and natural gas with crude oil remaining the most
important raw material for their production.
 The starting point for the production process is the distillation,
in petrochemical refineries, of the raw material into fractions.
 The heavy fractions give us lubrication oils and the heavy oils
used for heating fuels.
 The chemical building blocks for making plastics come mainly
from naphtha.

35
 Cont…

 The start of making plastics is to subject naphtha to a cracking

process in which complex organic chemical compounds are
separated into smaller molecules, dependent on their
molecular weight.
 These smaller molecules include ethylene, propylene, butene
and other hydrocarbons.
 The compounds produced through the cracking process are
then further refined to produce the base plastic materials.

36
 Modifying Polymers

 Polymers are initially produced as powders, granules or laces (like

straws).
 However they are seldom used in their pure form but are
changed by adding other materials to give them their special
properties.
 For example, they may need to be resistant to sunlight, or very
flexible or cheap.
 By using different types of additive the properties of the base
polymer may be modified in very many different ways so that the
range of use of the base polymer is extended.
37
 Cont…

Some of the possible additives are:

 Blowing agents
 Colourants

 Fillers
 Protective agents
 Lubricants

 Plasticizers

38
 Cont…

i. Blowing agents
 Many plastics products are cellular in structure.
 If you look at them closely, they look like a chocolate aero bar.
These expanded or foamed products can be made from base
polymers by the addition of what are known as 'blowing
agents'.
 This is done in the moulding process by adding a filler, which
foams throughout the hot polymer filling it with bubbles.

39
 Cont…

ii. Colourants
 Plastics can be coloured by using either dyes or pigments.
 Dyes give transparent colours and pigments give opaque ones.

 A very wide range of colours can be obtained from clear to

opaque black with a naturally clear material such as acrylic.

40
 Cont…

iii. Fillers
• The term ‘filler’ is a name given to a range of materials that
are added to polymers in order to modify their properties.
• They may also be added to a base polymer to lower the
manufacturing cost of a product made from it.
• A good example of this is one of the first examples of the use
of fillers, adding wood flour to phenol formaldehyde.

41
 Cont…

iv. Protective agents

• Many plastics are degraded by heat and light, especially from
the ultra violet light in sunlight.
• You may have seen evidence of this by plastics being
bleached’ by the sun.
• Adding protective agents will stop this.
• A special form of polyvinyl chloride is called UPVC, which is
used in the manufacture of drainpipes so that the pipes do
not degrade in the sunshine.

42
 Cont…

v. Lubricants
• These additives are widely used to help plastics flow in molds.
• They are usually waxy materials that act by reducing the
stickiness of the plastic on the mold surface.
vi. Plasticizers
• Plasticizers, such as dioctylphthalate are added to polymers in
order to make the resulting materials more flexible.
• Plasticizers can change unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (UPVC)
from a hard, rigid material suitable for drainpipes into a soft,
flexible material suitable for upholstery.
43
 Moulding of Plastics Into Articles

 Because of the properties of polymers it is possible to mould

them and change their shape using a number of different
repetitious manufacturing processes.
 The most important of these are
extrusion,
 injection moulding,
 blow moulding,
vacuum forming,
extrusion blow moulding,
rotational moulding,
calendaring and foaming.

44
 Cont…

a) Extrusion
• Extrusion can be used for thermoplastics.
• The raw material is in the form of pellets (~10mm sized pieces),
granules (~5 mm), or powder.
• Extrusion machines are used to make long pieces of constant
cross-section.
• The cross-section geometry can be solid or hollow.
• Extrusion is a process that can be compared to squeezing
toothpaste out of a tube.
• Thermoplastic granules are forced through a heated barrel and the
fused polymer is then squeezed through a die that is the profile of
the extruded component.

45
 Cont…
• The extrusion is cooled by water or air as it leaves the die and
is finally cut to the required length.
• The shape of the die can be varied from a simple hole with a
centrally supported core to produce tubes such as pipes, to
very complex sections

46
 Cont…

b) Blow moulding
 Blow moulding is a simple process where compressed air is
introduced underneath a warmed sheet of thermoplastic
material forcing the material into a mould cavity, or allowing it
to expand freely into the shape of a hemisphere.
 It is a good way of forming large domes, which when made
out of clear acrylic sheet are often used in shop displays.

47
 Cont…
c) Vacuum forming
• This is a very common manufacturing process used, for
example, to make a range of plastics packaging.
• It is really the opposite of blow moulding.
• In vacuum forming the air is drawn out from under the
softened plastic sheet, so it is forced over or into a mould by
atmospheric pressure.
• Vacuum forming is a very common and effective way of
producing complex shapes in thermoplastic sheeting.

48
 Cont…

d) Extrusion blow moulding

 This is a combination of extrusion and blow moulding and is
often used where the article to be made has a narrow neck,
such as a bottle.
 The plastic material is first extruded as a tube shape into an
open die.
 The die is then closed to seal the ends of the tube and air is
blown in forcing the plastic tube to take up the shape of the die
cavity.

49
 Cont…

e) Injection Moulding
• This process is one of the most common of all plastics
manufacturing processes.
• The polymer, in granule form, is heated until fused and forced
into a closed mould.
• Because of the viscous (thick, syrupy) nature of the fused
polymer, very high pressures are needed to make it flow,
which means that the machine and mould have to be very
strong to withstand the forces.

50
 Cont…

f) Calendering
• Calendering is used to produce plastic sheeting and products
such as floor tiles, coated fabrics and coverings for car
interiors.
• Fused thermoplastic is extruded on to heated rotating rollers
that squeeze the material into a continuous sheet or film.
• The film is cooled by jets of air or water , before being cut to
suitable lengths or loaded onto rolls.

51
 Cont…

g) Rotational Moulding
• Rotational moulding is used to produce hollow thermoplastic
products such as drums, storage tanks and litterbins.
• A carefully calculated amount of plastic is placed in a closed
mould that is heated in an oven and rotated slowly around
both a vertical and horizontal axes.
• The plastic material fuses and sticks to the hot mould surface,
building up the required thickness.
• The mould is then gradually cooled by air or water while still
rotating.
• The mould is opened, the finished product removed and the
mould reloaded and closed for the next cycle.

52
 Cont…

h) Foaming
• Plastic foams used in packaging and the upholstery industry
can be produced by using blowing agents that are mixed with
the base polymer.
• When heated these agents release gas which form bubbles in
the plastic.
• Another method is to inject compressed nitrogen gas into
molten plastics during the moulding process.
• A third method is to freeze a gas within the plastics granules
which then expands due in the heat of the moulding process.

53
Preparation, Properties And Uses Of PE, PVC And Bakelite
Polyethylene (PE):
 Polyethylene is perhaps the simplest polymer, composed of
chains of repeating –CH2– units.

 It is produced by the addition polymerization of ethylene,

CH2=CH2 (ethene).

 The properties of polyethylene depend on the manner in

which ethylene is polymerized.

54
 Cont…

 When catalyzed by organometallic compounds at moderate

pressure (15 to 30 atm), the product is high density
polyethylene, HDPE.
 Under these conditions, the polymer chains grow to very
great length, and molar masses average many hundred
thousand.
 HDPE is hard, tough, and resilient.

 Most HDPE is used in the manufacture of containers, such as

milk bottles and laundry detergent jugs.

55
 Cont…

 When ethylene is polymerized at high pressure (1000–2000

atm), elevated temperatures (190–210̊C), and catalyzed by
peroxides, the product is low density polyethylene, LDPE.
 This form of polyethylene has molar masses of 20,000 to
40,000 grams.
 LDPE is relatively soft, and most of it is used in the production
of plastic films, such as those used in sandwich bags.

56
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Polyvinyl chloride is obtained by heating a water-emulsion of
vinyl chloride in the presence of small amount of benzoyl
peroxide in an autoclave under pressure.

Properties:
 PVC is a colourless, odourless, noninflammable and chemically
inert powder.
 It is resistant to light, oxygen, inorganic acids and alkalis, but
soluble in hot chlorinated hydrocarbons like ethyl chloride.
57
 Cont…

 Pure resin possesses a high softening point (148oC) and

greater stiffness as compared to polyethylene.
 It is the third most widely used synthetic plastic after
polyethylene and polypropylene.

Uses:
PVC is used for making sheets, light fittings, safety helmets, cycle
and motorcycle mudguards, pipes and pipe-fittings, chemical
container, frames for doors and windows, debit and credit
cards, etc.

58
Bakelite
• Bakelite is phenol-formaldehyde resin, a condensation polymer
formed by polymerization of phenol with formaldehyde.
• Bakelite is prepared by condensing phenol with formaldehyde
in the presence of acidic or alkaline catalyst.

59
Properties:
 Bakelite is rigid, hard, scratch-resistant, infusible, water-
resistant, insoluble solids, which are resistant to non-oxidizing
acids, salts and many organic solvents, but are attacked by
alkalis because of the presence of free hydroxyl group in their
structures.
 They possess excellent electrical insulating character.
Uses:
• Bakelite is used for making electric insulator parts like
switches, plugs, switch-boards, heater-handles, etc.
• Bakelite is also used for making telephone parts, cabinets for
radio and television.
• Bakelite is also used as hydrogen-exchanger resins in water
softening, etc.

60
Rubber
 Rubbers are elastomers.
 They are polymer materials that are characterized by ability of
reversible deformation under influence of external deformation
forces.
 Extent of deformation depends on the structure and molecular
weight of deformed rubber and also on external conditions of
deformation; it can achieve some 100 up to 1000 % already at
low stress.
 This property, marked as elastic, eventually highly elastic
deformation, has entropy character.
61
 Cont…

 It rests in ability of the rubber macromolecules to occupy more

ordered forms under stress, and on removal of stress to return
to their ideal statistically random conformation.
 under ideal conditions without deformation of chemical bond
distances or their angles.
 The rubbers have usually long and regular macromolecule
chains without large substituents, with spatially oriented
structural units.
 Thus their segments are movable and also at low temperatures
they can freely rotate around simple chemical bonds.
62
 Cont…

 In general, rubber materials are characterized by their low

modulus of elasticity.
 They are resistant to water, alkalis and weak acids.

 Rubber is also a good electrical insulator, and can be used as a

bonding agent.

63
 Natural and synthetic rubber

There are two types of rubber: natural and synthetic.

Natural rubber
 Natural rubber is produced from the latex (milky juice) of the
Hevea Brasiliensis tree.
 It is, therefore, a renewable resource unlike synthetic rubber,
which is manufactured from petrochemicals.
 It is extracted in the form of latex from the bark of the Hevea
tree.
 The rubber is collected from the latex in a series of steps
involving preservation, concentration, coagulation, dewatering,
drying, cleaning, and blending. 64
 Cont…

 Because of its natural derivation, it is sold in a variety of grades

based on purity.
 Modified natural rubbers are also available, with treatment
usually performed at the latex stage.
These include:
• Epoxidized natural rubber (ENR)
• Deproteinized natural rubber (DNR).
• Process oils have been incorporated
• Thermoplastic natural rubber (TNR) – blends of natural rubber
and polypropylene.

 The natural rubber polymer is nearly 100% cis-1, 4 polyisoprene

with molecular weight (Mw) ranging from 1 to 2.5 x 106.

65
Synthetic rubber
 Synthetic rubber is manufactured from oil by-products using
either solution or emulsion polymerization techniques.
 Applying polymer chemistry techniques allow greater
opportunities for customization of mechanical properties and
increased resistance to temperature, chemicals and solvents,
than is possible with natural rubber.
 Synthetic rubbers have usually been developed with specific
properties for specialist applications.
 The synthetic rubbers commonly used for tyre manufacture
are styrene-butadiene rubber and butadiene rubber.
 Butyl rubber, since it is gas-impermeable, is commonly used
for inner tubes.

66
Natural and Synthetic Fibers
Natural fibers:
 The term “natural fibers” covers a broad range of vegetable,
animal, and mineral fibers.
 However, in the composites industry, it usually refers to wood
fiber and agro based bast, leaf, seed, and stem fibers.
 These fibers often contribute greatly to the structural
performance of the plant and, when used in plastic
composites, can provide significant reinforcement.

67
 Cont…

 Below is a brief introduction to some of the natural fibers used in

plastics.
 Although natural fibers have been used in composites for many
years, interest in these fibers has waned with the development of
synthetic fibers such as glass and carbon fibers.
 However, recently there has been a resurgence of interest.

 The major steps in producing natural fibers for use in plastics

include harvesting of the fiber-bearing plants, extraction of the
fibers, and
 further processing of the raw fiber to meet required purity and
performance aspects for use in plastic composites. 68
 Cont…

 The structure and chemical make-up of natural fibers varies

greatly and depends on the source and many processing
variables.
 Natural fibers are complex, three-dimensional, polymer
composites made up primarily of cellulose, hemicelluloses,
pectins, and lignin.
 These hydroxyl-containing polymers are distributed
throughout the fiber wall.

69
Synthetic fibers:
 These refer to those fibres that are not naturally present in
nature and are made artificially by man.
 Manmade fibres have high strength, strong when wet low
moisture absorption characteristics.
 Examples of manmade fibres are viscose rayon, acetate rayon,
nylon, polyester etc.
 Depending on raw material chosen for making of the fibres
they are classified as cellulosic fibres, protein fibres and
synthetic fibres.

70
 Cont…

 Synthetic fibers are manufactured, or "synthesized," usually

from oil, but sometimes from coal or natural gas.
 Synthetic fibers are from polymers produced by step
polymerization (usually, condensation polymers).
 but many are made from polymers produced by chain
polymerization (addition polymers).

71
 Cont…

The three principal fiber-forming processes are:

melt, dry, and wet spinning.

• All three steps involve the formation of continuous filament
strands by forcing the material through circular dies.
• Melt spinning involves cooling of the subsequent strand to
form the solid filament,
• whereas dry and wet spinning involves removal of a solvent to
form the solid filament.
• In dry spinning the solvent evaporates into a gas and in wet
spinning the solvent is leached into a liquid bath.
72