Non Destructive Testing

Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been def

ined as comprising those test methods use
d to examine an object, material or system
without impairing its future usefulness. The
term is generally applied to nonmedical inv
estigations of material integrity .
 Characteristics of NDT
• Applied directly to the • Can be performed on
product parts that are in servic
• Tested parts are not e
damaged • Low time consumptio
• Various tests can be n
performed on the • Low labour cost
same product
• Specimen preparation
not required
 Objectives of NDT
(1) to ensure product integrity, and in turn, reliability;
• To detect internal or surface flaws
• To measure the dimensions of materials
• To determine the materials’ structure
• To evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of
materials
(2) to avoid failures, prevent accidents and save human
life;
(3) to make a profit for the user;
(4) to ensure customer satisfaction and maintain the
manufacturer's reputation;
(5) to aid in better product design;
(6) to control manufacturing processes;
(7) to lower manufacturing costs;
(8) to maintain uniform quality level;
(9) to ensure operational readiness.
 Aspects / Factors in NDT Method
• Energy source or medium used to probe the test object
(such as X-rays, ultrasonic waves or thermal radiation);
• Nature of the signals, image or signature resulting from
interaction with the test object (attenuation of X-rays or
reflection of ultrasound, for example);
• Means of detecting or sensing resulting signals (photo
emulsion, piezoelectric crystal or inductance coil);
• Method of indicating or recording signals (meter
deflection, oscilloscope trace or radiograph); and
• Basis for interpreting the results (direct or indirect
indication, qualitative or quantitative, and pertinent
dependencies).
 NDT Methods
1. Visual Inspection
2. Liquid penetrant method
3. Ultrasonic Inspection
4. Radiography methods
• X-ray radiography & fluoroscopy
• γ- ray radiography
5. Eddy current testing
6. Magnetic particle testing
7. Thermography
LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD
Principle
A liquid penetrant is applied at the surface of t
he specimen. The penetrant is drawn by the s
urface flaws due to capillary action and this is
subsequently revealed by a developer, in addit
ion with visual inspection.
Procedure
i. Cleaning the surface
ii. Application of the penetrant
iii. Removal of excess penetrant
iv. Developing
v. Inspection
 LIQUID
PENETRANT
METHOD
Characteristics of a penetrant & a developer
Penetrant Developer
 Chemical stability & unifor  Highly absorptive
m physical consitency  Fine grain size & particle
 High degree of wettability shape for easy dispersion
 Quick & complete penetra  Provision of contrast back
bility ground
 Low viscosity  Easy application
 Sufficient brightness & pe  Formation of thin uniform
rmanence of colour coating over surface
 Chemical inertness  Easily wettable
 Low toxicity  Low toxicity
 Slow drying
 Ease of removal
 Low cost
 Applications
• Turbine rotor discs & blades
• Aircraft wheels, castings, forged componen
ts, welded assemblies
• Automotive parts – pistons, cylinders, etc.
• Bogie frames of railway locomotives & rolli
ng stock
• Electrical ceramic parts – spark plug insula
tors, glass-to-metal seals, etc.
• Moulded plastic parts
 Advantages & Limitations of Liquid
Penetrant Method
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
• Simple & inexpensive • Detect surface flaws
• Versatile & portable • Non-porous surface for
• Applicable to ferrous, material
non-ferrous, non- • Surface cleaning before &
magnetic & complex after inspection
shaped materials which • Deformed surfaces &
are non-porous & of any surface coatings prevent
dimension detection
• Detects cracks, seams,
lack of bonding, etc.
 ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION
Block Diagram for an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector Principle
Master Whenever there
Time Base
Timer
Amplifier
is a change in
Y the medium, the
Signal Pulse X ultrasonic waves
Generator are reflected.
CRT Thus, from the
Echo Signal
intensity of the
Amplifier
reflected echoes,
Probe (Transducer) the flaws are
Work piece
detected without
destroying the
material.
Principle & Block Diagram
 Applications
• Quality control & material inspection
• Detection of failure of rail rolling stock axes,
pressure columns, earthmoving equipments, mill
rolls, mixing equipments, etc.
• Measurement of metal section thickness
• Thickness measurements – refinery & chemical
processing equipments, submarine hulls, aircraft
sections, pressure vessels, etc.
• Inspect pipe & plate welds
• Inspect pins, bolts & shafts for cracks
• Detect internal corrosion
 Advantages & Limitations
Advantages Limitations
 Sensitive to surface & • Surface accessibility for
subsurface discontinuities ultrasonic transmission
 Superior depth of penetration • Highly skilled & trained
for flaw detection manpower
 High accuracy – position, size • Irregular, rough, coarse
& shape of defect grained or non homogenous
 Minimal part preparation parts, linear defects oriented
 Instantaneous result parallel to the beam cannot be
inspected – low transmission &
 Automated detailed images high noise
 Non hazardous • Coupling medium required
 Portable • Reference standards –
equipment calibration & flaw
characterization
ULTRASONIC SCANNINING METHODS
A-SCAN B-SCAN T. M. SCAN
Amplitude Mode Brightness mode •Time-motion mode
display display display
1-D information 2-D information •Moving object
Single fixed Single movable information
transducer transducer •Single fixed
Spike – Strength of Brightness & size of transducer
echo dot – Intensity & •X-axis – dots –
Position – strength of echo position of defect
Penetration depth Position – depending on depth
Detects position & Penetration depth •Y – axis – movement
size of flaws Exact information of of object
internal structure of
flaw
 Applications
• Measurement of velocity of fluids through
pipes
• Three dimensional image of specimen
obtained
• Detect corrosion in pipes and pressure
vessels
 Radiography
The formation of an image of the test piece eithe
r on a photographic film or on a fluorescent scre
en due to x-rays or γ-rays passing through the te
st piece.
Law of Absorption of X-rays
 x
I  I oe
 X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY
Principle
X-rays are passed
through the specimen
under inspection and
it is differentially
absorbed by the
specimen. The
transmitted x-rays are
received by the
photographic film and
the film is developed.
The dark and light
shadows reveal the
defects present in the
specimen and hence
the defects are
defected.
 X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY – Displacement
Method
Principle
X-rays are exposed over
the specimen by keeping
the x-ray source at
position ‘A’ and then at ‘B’
by displacing the source
through a certain distance.
The images are recorded
at positions ‘A’ and ‘B’.
From the displacements of
the x-ray tube and the
images, the exact position
of the defect can be
determined.
 Merits & Demerits of X-ray
Displacement Method
MERITS DEMERITS
• Material suitability • Expensive
• Used on castings and
weldings • Development time
• Determination of consumption large
thickness • Skilled & trained
• Used on uneven
surfaces
personnel required
• Time consumption is • Tissue damage due
less to radiations
• Permanent record
 X-RAY FLUOROSCOPY
Principle
X-rays are
passed through
the specimen and
is made to fall on
a fluorescent
screen. With
respect to the
defects in the
specimen, there
will be a variation
in intensity.
 MERITS & DEMERITS
Merits Demerits
• No need of washing and • Poor resolution
developing films • Low image contrast
• Low cost • Electronic image
• Image viewed intensifier required for
immediately on screen increasing the contrast
• Time consumption is less
• Movement of defects
detected (real time
images)
• Permanent record can be
made
 Differences
Radiography Fluoroscopy
• Image developed on • Image is developed on
photographic film fluorescent screen.
• High resolution & contrast • Fair resolution and low
• Immediate image cannot contrast.
be obtained. • Immediate image can be
• X-ray energy is converted viewed through the
into chemical energy. monitor.
• Expensive • X-ray energy is converted
into visible light.
• Time consumption is
• Inexpensive.
high.
• Time consumption is low