NDT Training & Certification

Welcome to
PIRT
PCN GEN Issue 8 (Based on ISO 9712:2012)

Level I Level II
Training (PSL 57A) NA 56 hrs
Experience (PSL 30) NA 6 months
(randomly verified)
Vision Requirements (PSL 44): Near Vision – J1/N 4.5 Colour
Vision: OK

No. of Questions Pass Percentage

General 40 70%
Specific 36 70%
Practical - 12 Radiographs– 70% each radiograph
Pass Percentage: Average : 80%
 Certification Scheme:

The PCN Scheme is a flexible, reliable and cost-effective method of

satisfying NDT personnel qualification and certification and quality
management systems requirements.

PCN was the first fully accredited personnel certification scheme

under EN473.

It is setting industry standards in the UK and displaying a leading

role within Europe and worldwide.
 NDT
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Definition:

Testing of material, component or assembly by means, which

do not affect its ultimate use.

Non Destructive Testing is the applied use of technologies for

inspecting materials to known standards
 Destructive Testing
• Small percentage of
batches of product
tested
• Measurement of actual
forces applied
• Product tested cannot
be reused
• Product not tested,
assumed to have the
same properties as
product tested
 NDT Methods
MOST COMMON METHODS

• Penetrant Testing
• Magnetic Particle Testing
• Eddy Current Testing
• Ultrasonic Testing
• Radiographic Testing

OTHER METHODS

• Visual Testing
• Acoustic Emission
• Magnetic Flux Leakage
• Infrared Testing
• Other methods
 NDT APPLICATIONS
NDT applications are carried out at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component:

– To assist in product development

– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat
treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
 Which is the best NDT method?
Depends on many factors and conditions

•Cost
•Material type
•Equipment availability
•Qualified Personnel availability
•Types of Defects sought
•Sensitivity required
•Component location/position
•Quantity of components
•Condition of component- surface
 ADVANTAGES of NDT
• Capable of testing 100% of products
• Capable of testing before, during, and after production
of components
• Capable of testing parts or components in service/ in
operation/ on site
• Capable of retesting the products
• Various materials, sizes, geometries may be tested using
specific NDT methods.
Prevention is Better Than Cure
 Mechanical Disasters
• Costly
• May be injurious or deadly
• May cause hazards to environment
• May cause damage to reputation of the company

• May be prevented if NDT and Inspection were carried

out properly
Industries involved with NDT:
•Oil and Gas
•Construction
•Metal Fabrication
•Chemical
•Aerospace
•Power Generation
•Transportation
•Medical
•Electronic
•Metal Manufacturing
•Composite Manufacturing
•Inspection and Testing
•Research and Development
•Training and Certification
 CERTIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS
 NDT personnel
should posses : High Skill, Knowledge, and Integrity

 To achieve these : Proper training and certification

required

 Training : By qualified training personnel and

accredited training centres

 International Certification Schemes available:

 CERTIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS
• Company Certification
Employees are trained and certified in accordance with the requirements of the
company.
– In-house training
– Internal Certification issued by company
– Valid in the specific company only

• Central Certification

Personnel are trained and certified in accordance with the requirements of

independent bodies:
– Training conducted by Accredited Training Centres
– Examinations issued by Independent Certification Bodies
– Certificates issued to personnel
Any Questions Please ?
NDT
Radiographic Interpretation
( NDT – RI2 )
Radiography

Part 1.
 Principles of Radiography

 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test

object
 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
 Thinner areas and materials of a less density show
as darker areas on the radiograph
 Thicker areas and materials of a greater density
show as lighter areas on a radiograph
 Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
Penetrating radiation is absorbed as it passes through matter.
The extent to which it is absorbed depends upon three
factors:

• The thickness of the absorber.

• The physical characteristics of the absorber
(in particular its density and atomic number).
• The wavelength or “photon energy” of the
radiation itself.
 Industrial Radiography

Radiographic Testing

X - Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay of
unstable atoms
Image is observed virtually on a LEAD CABINET

fluorescent screen rather than X RAY TUBE

recorded on a film.
DIAPHGRAM

Has the advantages of high speed SPECIMEN

and low cost. LEAD

DOOR

Disadvantages FLUORESCENT
SCREEN

LEAD
GLASS
• Examination of thick, dense, or high-
atomic-number specimens is impractical
• Poor sensitivity LEAD GLASS
• No permanent record VIEWING WINDOW

MIRROW

LEAD CABINET
 X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced from electrical equipment
referred to as x-ray tubes or x-ray tube heads
 Gamma Ray Radiography
Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes,
example Cobalt 60, Iridium 192.
 Gamma Ray Radiography

Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes,

example Cobalt 60, Iridium 192.
 Radiographic Testing

Source

Image quality
Radiation beam Indicator (IQI)

Radiographic film Test specimen

 Radiographic Testing
Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

Thinner areas and materials of a
less density show as darker
areas on the radiograph

Thicker areas and materials of a

greater density show as lighter
areas on a radiograph
Note that the radiograph cannot
be used to determine the through
thickness position of the voids.
For example, suppose that a chosen
radiographic technique is capable of
detecting a thickness difference of say
0.5 mm in 50 mm of steel.

The gas pore will readily be detected

because A - (B + C) = 3 mm.

The lack of side fusion will not appear

as an image on the radiograph
because
A - (D + E) = 0.01 mm which is much
too small to be detected by the
technique used.
 Advantages of Radiography

 Permanent record
 Internal flaws
 Can be used on most materials
 Direct image of flaws
 Real - time imaging
 Disadvantages of Radiography
 Health hazard
 Sensitive to defect orientation
 Access to both sides required
 Limited by material thickness
 Skilled interpretation required
 Relatively slow
 High capital outlay and running costs
 What is radiation?

 Waves of energy associated with electrical and

magnetic fields

 Electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to

each other and to the direction of propagation

Electromagnetic Radiation
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Industrial
radiography Electric
Microwaves Waves
Ultra
violet Infra red TV

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108
Wavelength
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• There are all sorts of Electromagnetic energy, including light and
heat.
• Gamma rays (like X-rays and Cosmic rays) are high frequency
electromagnetic radiation
 NUMERICAL
Prefixes Definition Symbol
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
102 Hecto h
10 Deca da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Mili m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 Pico p
 Penetration of Ionizing Radiation
• Each type of Ionizing Radiation has a different ability to
penetrate
• Alpha and Beta particles will not pass through the
encapsulation of a sealed source
Penetrating Power of Radiation

Alpha

Beta

Gamma
Or X-ray

Neutron

Paper Tin Lead Hydrogen

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy

Shortening Wavelength
 Natural Background Radiation

Terrestrial = about
28 mrem/year
Cosmic = about
28 mrem /year

Internal Sources =
about 40 mrem /year
Radon = about
200 mrem /year
Man-Made Radiation
 Properties of x-ray and gamma rays
 They have no effect on the human sense
 They have adverse effects on the body
 They penetrate matter
 They travel at the speed of light
 They obey the inverse square law
 They may be scattered
 They affect photographic emulsion
 They may be refracted and diffracted
 Radiography

X-ray production
 X-Ray Production
X-rays are produced by bombarding a surface with high
speed electrons (in a vacuum).

In order to produce x-rays three things are required:

• A source of electrons.

• A target, constructed from a suitable high melting point

material.

• A means of accelerating electrons toward the target.

High velocity electrons cannot travel far in air,

therefore the process of acceleration must take place
in a high vacuum.
 X-Ray Tube (Evacuated Glass Bulb)
Target (97-99% heat)
Focusing (tungsten) (1-3% X-ray)
cup

Filament
Fin
Vacuum (heat dissipated)

Cathode Anode
- ve +ve (Kv)

(mA)
Berrylium
Electron X-rays window
accelerated

Production of X-Ray
Nearly all anodes are „hooded‟ the hood is a high conductivity
copper shroud which is designed to intercept stray electrons and
to prevent them from hitting the tube walls.
„window‟
In the form of a beryllium insert or a thinned section of copper
which permits x-rays to exit without unduly increasing „inherent
filtration‟.

Inherent filtration
Term used to describe removal of x-rays from the primary beam
due to absorption by the materials used in x-ray head
construction.
Beryllium
has a very low absorption factor and this minimises inherent
filtration whilst still affording the tube walls protection from stray
electrons.
 Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)
99 % will changed into
Lower velocity electron heat and light
(Bremsstrahlung)

Higher velocity electron

Higher velocity electron

Polychromatic ray

Characteristic X-ray

(Monochromatic ray) Continuous X-ray

(Industrial radiography)
 Characteristic X- ray
• The two characteristic peaks
are caused by target
material inner shell
electrons jumping to a
higher energy level, then
falling back to their
equilibrium state.

• Relatively low energy, long

wavelength and are little
used in the industrial
radiography of metallic
components

• It can cause a problem

known as diffraction
mottling (artefacts).
X-ray spectrum
 X-Ray Production
1. Electron Source : Tungsten Filament
Heating the filament produces a cloud of loosely
bound, low kinetic energy electrons in close proximity
to the filament.

This process is known as “thermionic emission.”

Current
 X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference

-ve +ve

Focusing cup concentrates

electrons into a beam
 X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference
Tungsten Target

-ve +ve

X-rays / Bremsstrahlung
 Focal spot size
Is a measurement of the resolution

The smaller the focal spot size, the

better the resolution.

The focal spot should be as small as

conditions permit, in order to secure
the sharpest possible definition

The smaller the focal spot, the less

energy it will withstand without
damage.

The angle of the tungsten target

determines the effective focal spot
size
 Determination of focal spot size

Placed a lead sheet approx. 4mm thick

containing a small hole about 0.25mm X- RAY
dia, exactly halfway between the focal TUBE

spot & radiographic film

FOCAL SPOT 250 mm

LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.

FOCAL SPOT SIZE 0.25 mm Dia HOLE

250 mm
DETERMINED BY
FILM AND CASSETTE
Image Dimension minus (2 X Hole Size)
4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm
DEVELOPED FILM

LARGEST IMAGE
DIMENSION e.g. 4mm
Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image
 Problems
• Electrons travel for only short distances through gasses
• Kinetic Energy converted into 97% heat and 3% X-rays
• Tungsten has a very high melting point (3370°C). This reduces
the chances that it will be vaporised by the large amount of
heat generated.
• Sometimes the target is constructed from Tantalum (melting
point 2996°C)

Tungsten has a high atomic number

and therefore a large number of
electrons.
 X-Ray Production - HEAT
In any X-ray tube around 95% of the energy generated is in the
form of heat
For typical 200kV portable equipment around 1kW of heat has to
be dissipated
For a 300kV constant potential laboratory unit heat generation
is typically 7.5kW
X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling system in
order to prevent overheating and increase duty cycle
Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are generally oil or
gas cooled
 X-Ray Production - HEAT

A rotating anode may be used in order to help dissipate heat

- this type of arrangement is generally limited to X-ray units
intended for medical use.
Modern X-ray units have so-called “metal-ceramic”
envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it practical to
have a much higher potential difference between the
electrodes and the envelope than was the case with glass.
This in turn permits the use of “grounded anodes”.
Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore be cooled
directly by water
X-Ray Production - Anodes

Directional Type
X-Ray Production - Anodes
PANORAMIC
X-Ray Production - Anodes
ROD-ANODE
 X-Ray Production - Anodes
ROTATING-ANODE

USED MAINLY FOR LOW

kV, VERY HIGH TUBE
CURRENT, EQUIPMENT
IN MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
X-Ray Production - Anodes
ROTATING-ANODE
 X-Ray Production

• Tube current - controls the amount

or intensity of
(mA) radiation

• Tube voltage - controls the “quality”

or penetrating ability
(kV) of the radiation and
the velocity of the
electron
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
 The Effects of Kilo Volts

KV’s Increased KV’s Reduced

• Electron Flow Increases • Electron Flow Reduces

• Wave Length Shortens • Wave Length Increases
• Increase In Penetration • Reduction In Penetration
• Reduction In Contrast • Increase In Contrast
 Conventional x-ray tubes, as used in
industrial radiography, are capable of being
operated in the range from below
50 to 400 kV.

If greater penetrating power is required

high energy x-ray sources such as
betatrons, linear accelerators or Van
der Graaf generators
can be used to provide
x-ray energies of up to
30 or even 40 MeV.
 The Conservation of Energy
The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
although it is possible to change it to one form to another.
In the case of x-rays a stream of quickly moving particles (usually
electrons) strike a target material (usually tungsten) and are brought to
a rapid halt. A portion of this energy is give off as packets of
electromagnetic radiation called photons. The photons can vary in
energy which is determined by

1. The original energy of the electrons.

2. How rapid the electrons are decelerated.
3. The atomic number of the target material.
This process is known as bremsstrahlung
 X-ray - Bremsstrahlung

 Beta +
NUCLEUS

CHARGED
PARTICLE
CHARGED PARTICLE LOSES
g
ENERGY IN THE FORM OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION AS A RESULT OF
CHANGE IN VELOCITY and
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL.
 A.C. Circuit
+

The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow.

In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be produced
when the current is travelling from the cathode (-
ve) to the anode (+ve).
 Half Wave rectified Circuit

In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is only

positive every half cycle, therefore the electrons
will only flow from the filament during that time.
The x-rays are only produced during the positive
half cycle.
 Constant Potential Circuit
+

The introduction of separate rectifiers into the

circuit, produces a constant electron flow from the
cathode to anode and therefore a relatively
constant output of x-rays. This circuit is know as a
Greinacher circuit.
 X-Ray Set Circuits

Constant Potential Half Wave Rectified

Advantages Advantages
High output/unit time More commonly used on site
100% duty cycle More robust
Shorter exposure times Portable/lighter
Disdavantages Disdavantages
Bulky equipment Low output/unit time
Expensive Longer exposure times
Low duty cycle 50%
 Consideration for Exposures
X-ray Equipment

A different set of equipment with the

same panel setting (kV and mA)
-Will produce different wavelength
-Will produce different intensity
-Will produce different quality of radiograph

Filter types and thicknesses

-Differ between X-ray tubes

-To cut out secondary radiotion
-Provide more homogeneous x-ray beam &less scatter
level
-Thick filter require more exposure than thinner filter
 Radiography
Gamma ray production
Source assembly in
fully shielded
position of
radiographic
exposure device

Source assembly
and remote control
cable connectors
 Sealed source in
transit mode

Sealed source in
the exposure
mode
 Atomic structure
All atoms are composed of the 3 basic particles:

1. PROTON – Has a positive charge & relatively heavy

2. NEUTRON – About the same size and weight as the proton

but has NO electrical charge

3. ELECTRON – Very light particle, about 1/1840 of the

weight of proton & it has a negative charge

The NUCLEUS – contains NEUTRON + PROTON

(packed together in the center
of the atom).
 Atomic structure
THREE BASIC PARTICLES

Proton
* In nucleus * In nucleus
* +1 charge * No charge
* Number of * Needed for
protons stability in
determines nucleus
the element

Electron
* Outside of
nucleus
* -1 charge
 The Nucleus consists mainly of Protons
(positive charge) and Neutrons (no
charge)

Nucleus is surrounded by orbiting

Electrons (negative charge), equal in
number to the Protons in the nucleus

A particular Element is defined by the

number of Protons in the nucleus (and
orbiting electrons):

Proton
– Hydrogen has one proton and
(positive charge) one electron

Neutron Electron – Potassium (K) has 19 protons

(no charge) (negative charge) and electrons
 Atomic structure
N SHELL
M SHELL
L SHELL
K SHELL
Nucleus

Neutron no charge

Proton + ve charge
Electron –ve charge
 Atomic Structure

Atomic Number (Z) –

The number of protons only in the nucleus of an atom.
This determines the type of a basic element.
All atoms of particular element have the same atomic number,

Atomic Mass Number (A)

The number of protons + neutrons, this can be altered in order
to make artificial isotopes.

A COMPLETE ATOMS must have an equal number of protons &

electrons therefore:

Number of protons = Number of electrons

 THREE BASIC PARTICLES
Atomic structure

Atomic Number
• No. of electrons
• No. of protons 2

Element/Symbol He
4
Atomic Mass
(AMU)
 1 Protons
0 Neutrons
2 Protons
1 Electrons
2 Neutrons
2 Electrons

Hydrogen Helium

4 Protons
3 Protons
5 Neutrons
4 Neutrons
4 Electrons
3 Electrons

Lithium Beryllium
 Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge
Helium Atom

NEUTRONS: No Charge

PROTONS: +Ve Charge

Atomic number (Z) : 2

Atomic mass (A) : 4

The atom carries no overall charge.

 CHARGE OF THE ATOM

The Stable Atom Electrons = 2

Protons =2

A Positive Charge Electrons = 1

Protons =2

Electrons = 3
A Negative Charge
Protons =2
 Ionization

Definitions:
The removal of electrons from an atom.

The essential characteristic of high energy radiations

when interacting with matter

This effect is the reason why ionizing radiation is

hazardous to health, and provides the means by
which radiation can be detected
 Ionization
Oxygen atom
Electrons 8 +ve protons
Protons & 8+ 8 -ve electrons
Neutrons no overall charge

Ionising Radiation
Ejected electron

8 +ve protons
8+ 8+ 8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
9 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge
1 -ve charge

Positive oxygen ion Negative oxygen ion

 IONIZING VS NON-IONIZING RADIATION

Ionizing Radiation

Ion Pair
Non-Ionizing
Radiation
 NON-IONIZING RADIATION

• Non-ionizing radiation include:

– Microwaves
– Radio waves
– Visible light
– Heat
– Infrared
 Production Of Artificial Isotopes

Inserted Removed

Stable cobalt - 59 Neutron Flux Unstable cobalt - 60

Each Co 59 Nucleus Each Co 60 Nucleus

contains :27 protons contains :27 protons
32 neutrons 33 neutrons
Nuclear Reactor

Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60 depending on the

time in the reactor and the magnitude of the neutron flux
 Radioactive Isotopes

Some isotopes are stable others are not

Unstable isotopes transform into another element
and in so doing emit radiation in 3 forms

 Alpha (particles)
 Beta (particles)
 Gamma (rays)
 Particulate / Corspulscular Radiation

Alpha ( ) Beta ()

• Heavy Particle emitted from • A negatively charged particle
an unstable Nucleus (identical to an electron) given
• Consists of 2 Protons and 2 off when a neutron decays
into a proton in the nucleus
Neutrons bound together
(equal to the Nucleus of the – low mass
Helium Atom) – negative charge
– Positive Charge – medium penetration
– Very Low Penetration



2+
 Gamma Ray
• A forms of excess energy emitted during
disintegrations of a radio nuclide

• After emitting an Alpha or Beta particle, the

nucleus may be excited (it has excess energy).

• This energy is given off as very high frequency

(short wavelength) Electromagnetic Radiation

– Travels at the Speed of Light

– No Weight or Mass
– No Charge
–
g
Highly Penetrating
 Isotopes Specific Activity

ALPHA PARTICLES
2 NEUTRONS AND 2 PROTONS
VERY LOW PENETRATING
ISOTOPE
RADIOACTIVE AREAS
THE GREATER THE
AMOUNT THE GREATER
THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY

NEUTRONS
THERMAL & FAST
BETA PARTICLES
EJECTED AS ELECTRONS
GAMMA RAYS
-Ve CHARGE
EMMITTED AFTER
BETA OR ALPHA
PARTICLES.
Photons of energy they
are not particles.
 Rate of Decay
The amount of gamma radiation – the number of photons,
produced by an isotope is controlled by the number of
disintegrations (atomic fissions) per unit time.

The “source strength” of an isotope is usually expressed in

curies (Ci) or becquerels (Bq).

 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second

Radioactive source
 Becquerel = 1 disintegration / second Activity is
measured in terms
 1 Curie = 37 Gbq of Disintegration
per Second (dps)
1 pCi 1 nCi 1 µCi 1 mCi 1 Ci

37 mBq 37 Bq 37 kBq 37 MBq 37 GBq

“Source strength” may also be referred to as “source activity.”

 HALF-LIFE
Half Life = Time taken for the activity of
an isotope to reduce by a half

After One
Half Life

-0.693t
At = Aoe
T1/2
The activity is
At = Source strength after time t now half of what
it was
Ao = Initial strength

T1/2 = Half life of the isotopes type.

 Equivalent
Principle Penetrating
x-ray
Isotope Half-Life Emissions Power in mm
Kilovoltage
(MeV) Of Steel
(kV)
0.31,0.47,
Iridium (Ir) 192 74.4 days 400 75
0.60

Cobalt (Co) 60 5.3 years 1.17,1.33 1200 200

Thulium (Tm)
127 days 0.052,0.084 80 4
170
Ytterbium (Yb)
32 days 0.17,0.20 145 10
169

217
0.121, 0.136, (low energy beam
Selenium (Se) 75 118.5 days 30
0.265, 0.28, 0.401 components
improve sensitivity)
Intensity Mev. Wavelengths

Co 60
Relative

1.17 to1.3 Mev

Ir 192
Yb 169 0.3 to 0.47 Mev
0.06 to 0.2 Mev

Long Wavelength l Short

Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave

length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies
will be emitted for most sources.
 ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
• Scatter radiation is less penetrating than primary
radiation from which it is derived,

• They have a longer wavelength.

• The intensity of ionising radiation is reduced by one of

the following types of interaction:

Rayleigh scattering.

Photoelectric effect. Interactions which attenuate

Gamma rays or X-rays
Compton effect.

Pair production
 ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

The film receives scattered radiation from the

• object,

• film holder,

• any other material in the path of the primary x-ray

beam.
 ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
Rayleigh scattering Photoelectric effect
 Occurs at very low energies  Occurs at low energies
In this process, photons are The complete absorption of a photon
deflected by outer electrons of energy by an atom with the
with no change in energy emission of an electron

Compton effect Pair production

 Occurs at higher energies  Occurs at very high energies
The interaction of a photon of The simultaneous formation of an
energy by an electron resulting in positron (+ve electron) and a electron
the ejection of an electron from its as a result of the interaction of a
atom with a certain amount of photon with the nucleus of the atom.
The particles are soon afterwards
energy. The remaining energy is
destroyed thus creating photons this
scattered this is known as
is known as Annihilation
COMPTON SCATTER
 Scattering process
1. Rayleigh Scattering

θ
Soft radiation

The primary photon is scattered by the orbital electrons without

removing any electrons . The photon is deflected but does not
change the energy
 Absorption process
1. Photoelectric Process

Low energy level - Below 0.6 Mev

Ejected electron
Low Energy X-ray (total energy beam
absorbed by this
electron)
 Absorption process
1. Compton Effect
Energy level-(0.6 - 3.0 Mev)
Ejected electron
photon
X-ray

Scattered
radiation

Moderate Energy ( 0.3 - 3.0 Mev)

Most commonly happen in radiography industry
using Ir 192
 Absorption process
3. Pair Production
Energy level (Above 3.0 Mev)
Thick material using Co 60
Ejected electron
High Energy X-
ray

Scattered
radiation

Ejected
positron
The half value thickness (HVT) of a material may be used as a
guide for determining the thickness of a material to be used
for shielding from radiation

Half Value Layer (HVL)

The thickness of any material that will reduce the radiation
intensity to one half its initial value
Lead HVT Steel HVT Concrete HVT
Energy
(mm) (mm) (mm)
150 kV 0.3 4 22
200 kV 0.5 6 26
250 kV 1.0 12 28
300 kV 1.5 15 31
Irl92 6 13 40
Co60 12 20 65

Increasing mA wil not change the HVT

but
Changing kV or isotopes will alter the HVT of specific material
 16 R 16 R

HVT
HVT

4R 1R 8R 4R

Figure A Figure B
200kV - steel 250kV - steel
Side A of the specimen has 4 times the Side A of the specimen has 2 times the
intensity of radiation emerging from it in intensity of radiation emerging from it in
comparison with side B comparison with side B.

The lower the kV (longer the wavelength), the higher

the subject contrast and therefore the higher the
radiographic contrast.
 Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9
Old: Angstroms (Å) 1Å = 10-10 m

RADIATION New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

EXPOSURE: Old: Roentgen

ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy

BIOLOGICAL EFFECT: New: Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram TLD
Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv

SRDs
• Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)

• Self-reading Dosimeters (SRDs) can be used to

monitor an individual's exposure to gamma or x-ray
radiation.
The main benefit of the SRD is that it provides an
immediate read out, and can be viewed as often as you
wish.
 Measuring Radiation
Flux or Exposure:
Amount of radiation /
Unit Volume of Air Dose
for X- & Gamma Rays only. Equivalent:
Measured in SI units as Coulomb/Kg. Biological
(Roentgens) effect on Man
Measured in
Sieverts
(rems)
Source
Activity
Measured in Absorbed Dose:
Becquerels Energy absorbed by unit
(Curies) volume of any medium
Measured in Grays (rads)
 Ionization within the Body
• The bodies organs are made up of cells.
• Cells are made up of 80% Water, 20% complex
compounds, such as proteins, DNA, etc.
• Ionizing radiation damages at the cellular level.
• Effect depends on amount of cellular damage and if key
portions (i.e. DNA) are altered:

– Small amount of damage: cell repairs itself.

– Large amount: cell dies
– Large number of cells killed: organ damage -> Illness/death?
– If DNA is damaged and cell lives: may cause cancer in future
Protecting Ourselves from Radiation
 Gamma ray VS X-ray
Advantages Disadvantages
•No electrical or water supplies • Poorer quality radiographs
needed
• Exposure times can be longer
•Equipment smaller and lighter
(More portable) • Sources need replacing

•Equipment simpler and more robust • Radiation cannot be switched off

•More easily accessed • Poorer geometric unsharpness

•Less scatter • Remote handling necessary

•Equipment initially less costly

•Greater penetrating power

 SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
Source Sizes and Maximum Activity
• Relates the curie output to Source Dimensions Activity in Curies
the physical size of the Dia (mm) Length (mm) Ir 192 Co60
source 1.0 1.0 7.0 1.5
2.0 1.0 30 8.0
• Ir l92 has a higher specific 2.0 2.0 50 15
activity than Co60. 3.0 2.0 95 32
3.0 3.0 140 45
3.0 4.0 180 90
4.0 4.0 210 120

source activity
specific activity =
weight of the source.

Units measured - „curies per gram‟ (Ci/g)

 Inverse Square Law
The Inverse Square Law states that the intensity of the x-ray beam is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the object from
the source.
At twice the distance from the source
the same radiation is distributed over
four times the area and so the intensity
is reduced by a factor of four.

D1 At four times the distances sixteenth

times the area is covered with a
I1 sixteenth of the intensity

D2
Formulae:

I1 D22
=
I2 I2 D12
 Inverse Square Law
Source

Beam spreads evenly out from

point source
d

a
2d

At double the distance (x 2), area

covered by beam is 4 times, so
3d

a
a

intensity is ¼
a

At triple the distance (x 3), area

covered by beam is 9 times, so
a

intensity is 1/9
a
a

a
a
a

a
 Inverse Square Law Calculations
Example: 1 An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at
an auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is
the distance where safety barriers are to be
erected at 7.5 sv/h?

I1 = 40 msv/h (X 1000)
I2 = 7.5 µsv/h
D1 = 1m
D2 = ?

D2 = I1
I1 D22 X D12
Formulae: = I2
I2 D12
D2 = 40000
X 12
7.5

Answer D2 = 73 m
Example: 2 An emergency is when an unshielded isotope
emits 6.4 sv/h at the barriers at 45m
distance. What will be the exposure at 1m?

I1 = 6.4 µsv/h
I2 = ?
D1 = 45m
D2 = 1m

I1 D22 D12
Formulae: = I2 = D22 X I1
I2 D12
452
I2 = 2 X 6.4
1

Answer I2 = 12960µsv/h
Determine the intensity of radiation at a distance of 1m if a
survey meter reveals 0.02 mr/h at 35m.

I1 = ?
I2 = 0.02 mr/h
D1 = 1m
D2 = 35m

I1 D22 D22
Formulae: = I1 = D12 X I2
I2 D1 2
352
I1 = 2 X 0.02
1

Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h

Example: 4 The intensity of radiation on a survey meter
is 333sv/h at 15m. What distance is
between the meter and radiation source if
the meter shows 75 msv/h?
I1 = 333 µsv/h
2
I1 D2 I2 = 75 msv/h (X 1000)
Formulae: =
I2 D12 D1 = 15m
D2 = ?

D2 = I1 D2 = 333
X D12 X 15
I2 75000

Answer D2 = 0.999 m
Exposure Control
Exposure control

For FFD/SFD change

E1 D1 2
=
E2 D2 2
E1 = New exposure time
E2 = Original exposure time
D1 = New FFD
D2 = Original FFD
 Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 300mm
Original exposure at 250mm was 5 min

E1 D1 2 5min. 2502mm
=
=
E2 3002mm
E2 D2 2

5Mins. X 3002
E1 = 5min. E2 =
E2 = ?
2502
D1= 250mm
E2 = 7.2mins.
D2 = 300mm
If a good radiograph was produced using an exposure of 100 curie minutes at a
source to film distance of 850 mm what exposure will produce a good radiograph if
the source to film distance is changed to 550 mm (assuming that all other factors
remain equal)?

E1 D1 2 E1 5502mm
=
=
100ciMins. 8502mm
E2 D2 2

100ciMins. X 5502
E1 =
E1 = ? 8502
E2 = 100ciMins.
D12 = 550mm
2
E1 = 42 ciMins.
D2 = 850mm
An exposure chart for iridium 192 that has been constructed for SFD = 500
mm gives an exposure of 100 Ci-min for 25 mm of steel. The specification
calls for a minimum SFD = 800 mm. If all other factors remain equal what
exposure is needed at the specified minimum SFD?

E1 D1 2 100ciMins. 5002mm
=
=
E2 8002mm
E2 D2 2

100ciMins. X 800 2
E2 =
E1 = 100ciMins. 5002
E2 = ?
D12 = 500mm
2
E2 = 256 ciMins.
D2 = 800mm
A radiographic technique produces a good radiograph, the settings are:
kV =175, mA = 5, FFD = 440 mm and Exposure time = 2 mins 12 secs
What exposure time will be required if the settings are changed as follows?
kV = 175,mA = 3.5, FFD = 500

E1 D1 2 11mAmin. 440 2mm

=
=
E2 5002mm
E2 D2 2
11mAmin. x 500 2
E1 = 5mA x 2min 12sec E2 =
4402
E2 = 3.5mA x T
D12 = 440mm 3.5mA x T = 14.2mAmin.
D22 = 500mm
T = 14.2mAmin.
3.5mA
E1 = mA X Time (mA.min)
= 5 x 2.2
Exposure time = 4min 3sec
= 11mAmin.
 Exposure calculation

E = Intensity X Time (mA.min) – X-Ray

E = Intensity X Time (ci.mins) – Gamma Ray

Example for X-ray

E = exposure (mA.min)
I = Tube current (mA)
T = Exposure time (min)
 Exposure calculation

In one radiographic operation, an-x-ray machine is set at 5mA and the

radiographic film is exposed for a period of 15 minutes. What is the total
exposure received by the film?
Solution:
Given,
Tube current (mA) = 5mA
Exposure time (t) = 15 minutes
Exposure ( E) = Intensity(mA) X T(min.)
= 5 X 15
= 75 mA.min
A satisfactory radiograph is produced in 3 minutes at 8 mA.
Assuming that all other factors remain the same, what
exposure time is required if the mA is reduced to halved?

Original exposure After reduced exposure

E = mA x t E = mA x T
= 8mA x 3min
= 24mAmin.
24mA = 4mA x T
T = 24mAmin.
4mA
= 6min.
 Consideration for Exposures

Intensity of Radiation & Exposure Time

Exposure time is proportional to the intensity of radiation

Exposure = time X intensity

This relationship is known as the Reciprocity Law

 Consideration for Exposures
X–ray Exposure calculation

Exposure = intensity (mA) x time Higher mA

3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA min. -The greater the intensity
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA min. -The darker the image will be

Gamma Exposure calculation

Exposure = intensity (Ci) x time The higher activity of isotopes

4 curie at 5 minutes = 20 Ci mins. -The greater the intensity
-The darker the image will be
10 curie at 2 minutes = 20 Ci mins.