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MINDTCE-15
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Radiographic Sensitivity in Industrial

Radiographic Testing With X-Ray Films
By: Tee Kim-Tsew
(Technical Manager, Lott Inspection Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
ASNT and ACCP Level III)

Abstract.

Radiographic Testing (RT) is widely used in industries, at airport for security checks, medical
applications etc. to detect anomalies in materials and human bodies.
Radiographic Testing is the common NDT methods used in the construction and fabrication
industries for the oil & gas sectors using welding, gas/liquid transmission pipelines, casting
foundries, and condition monitoring in existing oil & gas refineries and facilities.

This paper will discuss radiographic testing sensitivity using industrial X-ray films mainly on
welds and castings. No in-depth discussion in related science and physics, merely the
perspective of an industrial radiographer based on his experience.

Keywords: IQI, Quantitative, Qualitative, sensitivity, contrast, definition, geometric un-sharpness

INTRODUCTION

The basic principle for the detection of anomalies using radiographic testing method is the
difference in radiation absorption coefficients properties exhibits by different materials. The
images are captured in a recording medium. The recording medium used may be X-ray film,
phosphorous imaging plates, diodes etc. Industrial X-ray films are the common recording
medium used for these applications.

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING SENSITIVITY

Like all other NDT methods, certain detection sensitivity is required for the technique to ensure
detectability of desired anomalies.

In industrial radiography, Radiographic Sensitivity is a QUALITATIVE term referring to the size

of the smallest detail that can be recorded and discernible on the film/radiograph, or to the ease
with which the images of small details can be recorded.
MINDTCE2015 November 2015 Radiographic Sensitivity

Image Quality Indicator (IQI) which provides QUANTITATIVE measurement is used to

determine the adequacy of a radiographic technique, but not intended to determine the smallest
flaw that can be detected.

Wire type IQI as per ASTM E-747

There are other IQI designs like the Hole/Plaque type and step wedge design.

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FACTORS AFFECTING RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY

Radiographic sensitivity is affected by the combined effects of inherent un-sharpness and two
sets of factors radiographic contrast and definition.

1. INHERENT UN-SHARPNESS

Somethings that cannot be avoided.

1. Film granularity single or double side coated film, thickness of emulsion, etc.

2. Film processing.

3. Geometry subject thickness, source size (not point source) and the nature of the
flaw and its orientation to radiation beam.

4. Radiation scattering and mottling.

2. CONTRAST

Contrast is the difference in densities between two adjacent areas, and is the
product of two distinct factors, i.e. Subject Contrast and Film Contrast.

Subject Contrast

1. Subject contrast is a result of difference in attenuation coefficient and

absorption of radiation energy by the subject (specimen).
Thickness
Material densities
Flaw densities/nature/orientation Vs. base metal
A flat plate or a butt weld with flushed weld reinforcement and flushed
root has very little or no subject contrast
Weld with high weld reinforcement has high subject contrast

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Image formation

a b a

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2. Scattered radiation

Back scattering
Side scattering
Internal scattering /undercutting/mottling

3. Radiation Quality radiation energy selection

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Film Contrast

Film contrast is the difference in the degree of darkness between two adjacent areas of a
film.
Film latitude refers to the range of densities that a film is able to record in a single
exposure. The H&D or Characteristic Curve of a film provides the relationship of film
densities over exposure it received. The curve determines the usable density range of
that particular Class of film.

Characteristic Curves of AGFA films

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1. Classification of Industrial X-ray films as per ASTM E1815

Class I: low speed, very high contrast, very low graininess.

Class II: medium speed, high contrast, low graininess.

When the objective is to detect very small defect in weld, it is a common practice
in the industry that Class I films (Agfa D4 and Fuji IX 50) or slower speed films (D2)
are used carbon and stainless steel welds and casting.
The film manufacturers do not recommend these Classes of films to be used on
thick and high densities materials like carbon and stainless steels. These Classes
of films are recommended to be used on light materials, composite and electronic
components. Agfa D5 and Fuji IX80 films, being Class 1 films, are more suitable.

Independent of how sharp (definition) the radiographic image is achieved, the film
contrast may deteriorate without noticeable effects when such films are used on
dense materials.
When there is subject contrast issue like incomplete root fusion due to high-low in
pipe girth butt weld, or planar defects in joint of carbon steel pipes welded with
INCONEL electrodes, these flaws may not be detected.
The exposure time for D4 and IX 50 films is about 4 times longer than the
exposure time D7 or IX 100 films (Class 2, commonly used).

2. Film processing

Temperature of processing chemicals

Concentration of chemicals
Stop bath, washing and wetting agent
Degree of agitation
Safe light
Dark room conditions water source, tank etc.

3. Film densities

Higher films densities has better film contrast provided the film density is within the
usable density range of that class of film (Characteristic Curve) The film viewer
must be sufficient bright to view the films.

The availability of viewing facilities at Client premises has to be taken into

consideration when high densities films are submitted for review and acceptance.

4. Exposure time

Exposure time is the time required for sufficient radiation energy to ionize the film
emulsion to the desire density after processing.

Over exposure or under exposure and compensated by film development time in

manual processing will affect the film contrast. This is related to film graininess and
densities.

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5. Type of intensifying screens used.

Intensifying screens are used to intensify the image and reduce the exposure time.
The image quality will be improved under suitable conditions.
No intensifying screen is used
Lead oxide or lead foil screens.
Fluorescence screen
Fluoro-metallic screens
Copper, iron, INOX or other material
Thickness of screen depends energy of radiation used
Cleanliness, aging and quality deterioration/oxidation causing loss of
intensification.

3. DEFINITION

Definition refers to the degree of sharpness of the outline of the radiographic

image.

Geometry Factors
Ug = ST
1. Geometric Un-sharpness (ASME Section V) D

S - effective focal-spot or source size (Not point source)

D - source-to-subject distance
T source side of subject to film distance

This Ug
computatio
n is based
on similar
triangle
formula.

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Example: Elliptical exposure technique double wall exposure, double wall image viewing

Exposure set-up for 2 Wall Thickness 5.6 mm.

S. T
Ug= --------;
D
3.6 mm x 60.3 mm
0.51 mm = ------------------------------ ; D = 426 mm = 16.7 inches.
D

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2. Abruptness of thickness changes in subject and its geometry

Geometry causing image distortion

Diagnostic film length, related to Ug formula above

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3. Intensifying Screen to film contact

Free electrons are emitted when lead screen is exposed to X- ray or Gamma-
ray.
Images definition and contrast will deteriorate if there is a gap between the film
and screen during exposure due to stray electrons.

4. Motion of subject, source and/or film during exposure

Double image
Image distortion

4. FILM GRANULARITY

This is the appearance of film graininess on the processed radiographs.

i) This is directly related to the grain sizes / granularity of the film emulsion,
Classification of films.
ii) Exposure time. Over exposed or under exposed may affect image quality which is
also related to contrast.
iii) Dark room practices.

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RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY / IMAGE QUALITY

Inherent un-sharpness

Contrast Definition

Subject Contrast Film contrast Geometry Film Granularity

Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:

1. Absorption 1. Class of film 1. Geometric un- 1. Class of film
difference in sharpness
subject
Ug = FT/D

2. Scattered 2. Film processing 2. Abruptness of 2. Exposure time

radiations and dark room thickness
practices changes in
subject.

3. Radiation quality 3. Film Density 3. Screen to film 3. Film processing

contact and dark room
4. Exposure time practices
5. Intensifying 4. Movement of film
screens or source during
exposure

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