SETS

Sets
1
What is a set?
◍ A set is a group of “objects”
◌ Classes offered by a department: { GE 1, GE 2,
GE 3, … }
◌ Colors of a rainbow: { red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet }
◌ States of matter { solid, liquid, gas, plasma }
◍ Although a set can contain (almost) anything, we

will most often use sets of numbers
◌ All positive numbers less than or equal to 5:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
◌ All real numbers: { 2.1, π, 0, -6.32, e,… }
2
Set Properties 1
◍ Order does not matter

◌ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is
equivalent to {3, 5, 2,
4, 1}
◍ Sets are notated with curly

brackets
3
Set properties 2
◍ Sets do not have duplicate elements
◌ Consider the set of vowels in the
alphabet.
It makes no sense to list them as {a, a,
a, e, i, o, o, o, o, o, u}
What we really want is just {a, e, i, o,
u}
4
Specifying a Set 1
◍ Sets are usually represented by a

capital letter (A, B, S, etc.)
◍ Elements are usually represented by an

italic lower-case letter (a, x, y,
etc.)
◍ Easiest way to specify a set is to

list all the elements: A = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}
5
Specifying a Set 2
◍ The roster method of specifying a set consists of
surrounding the collection of elements with braces.
A variation of the simple roster method uses the

ellipsis ( … ) when the pattern is obvious and the
set is large.
{1, 3, 5, 7, … , 9007} is the set of odd

counting numbers less than or equal to
9007.
{1, 2, 3, … } is the set of all counting

numbers.
6
Specifying a Set 2
• Set builder notation has the general form
{variable | descriptive statement }.
The vertical bar (in set builder notation) is always

read as “such that”.
Set builder notation is frequently used when the

roster method is either inappropriate or
inadequate.
7
EXAMPLE SET-BUILDER
NOTATION
{x | x < 6 and x is a counting number} is the set of all

counting numbers less than 6. Note this is the same
set as {1,2,3,4,5}.
{x | x is a fraction whose numerator is 1 and whose
denominator is a counting number }.
Set builder notation will become much more concise
and precise as more information is introduced.
8
Specifying a Set 3
◍ A set is said to “contain” the various
“members” or “elements” that make up the set
◌ If an element a is a member of (or an
element of) a set S, we use then notation
a  S
◌ 4  {1, 2, 3, 4}
◌ If an element is not a member of (or an
element of) a set S, we use the notation
a  S
◌ 7  {1, 2, 3, 4}
◌ Virginia  {1, 2, 3, 4}
9
Often Used Sets
◍ N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} is the set of natural
numbers
◍ Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} is the set of
integers
◍ Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …} is the set of positive
integers (a.k.a whole numbers)
◍ Q = {p/q | p  Z, q  Z, q ≠ 0} is the set
of rational numbers
◌ Any number that can be expressed as a fraction of
two integers (where the bottom one is not zero)
◍ R is the set of real numbers
10
The Universal Set
◍ U is the universal set – the set of all

of elements (or the “universe”) from which
given any set is drawn
◌ For the set {-2, 0.4, 2}, U would be
the real numbers
◌ For the set {0, 1, 2}, U could be the
natural numbers (zero and up), the
integers, the rational numbers, or the
real numbers, depending on the context
11
The Universal Set
◌ For the set of the students in this class,

U would be all the students in the
University
◌ For the set of the vowels of the alphabet,

U would be all the letters of the alphabet
◌ To differentiate U from U (which is a set

operation), the universal set is written in
a different font (and in bold and italics)
12
Venn Diagrams
◍ Represents sets graphically

◌ The box represents the universal set
◌ Circles represent the set(s)
◍ Consider set S, which is
c
the set of all vowels in bthe d f
U
g h j
alphabet S
k l m
◍ The individual elements n p q e i
a
are usually not written r s t
in a Venn diagram o u
v w x
y z
13
Sets of Sets
◍ Sets can contain other sets
◌ S = { {1}, {2}, {3} }
◌ T = { {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} }
◌ V = { {{1}, {{2}}}, {{{3}}},
{ {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} } }

◌ V has only 3 elements!
◍ Note that 1 ≠ {1} ≠ {{1}} ≠

{{{1}}}
◌ They are all different
14
The Empty Set
◍ If a set has zero elements, it is called
the empty (or null) set
◌ Written using the symbol 
◌ Thus,  = { }  VERY
IMPORTANT
◌ If you get confused about the empty set
in a problem, try replacing  by { }
◍ As the empty set is a set, it can be a
element of other sets
◌ { , 1, 2, 3, x } is a valid set
15
The Empty Set
◍ Note that  ≠ {  }
◌ The first is a set of zero elements
◌ The second is a set of 1 element (that
one element being the empty set)
◍ Replace  by { }, and you get: { } ≠ { {

} }
◌ It’s easier to see that they are not
equal that way
16
Set Equality
◍ Two sets are equal if they have the same
elements
◌ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
◌ Remember that order does not matter!
◌ {1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1} = {4, 3, 2, 1}
◌ Remember that duplicate elements do
not matter!
◍ Two sets are not equal if they do not have
the same elements
◌ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ≠ {1, 2, 3, 4}
17
Subsets 1
◍ If all the elements of a set S are also
elements of a set T, then S is a subset of T
◌ For example, if S = {2, 4, 6} and T = {1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then S is a subset of T
◌ This is specified by S  T
◌ Or by {2, 4, 6}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
◍ If S is not a subset of T, it is written as
such:
S  T
◌ For example, {0, 8, 9}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7}
18
Subsets 2
◍ Note that any set is a subset of

itself!
◌ Given set S = {2, 4, 6}, since all
the elements of S are elements of

S, S is a subset of itself
◌ This is kind of like saying 5 is
less than or equal to 5

◌ Thus, for any set S, S  S
19
Proper Subsets
◍ If S is a subset of T, and S is not equal to T,
then S is a proper subset of T
◌ Let T = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
◌ If S = {1, 2, 3}, S is not equal to T, and S is a
subset of T
◌ A proper subset is written as S  T
◌ Let R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. R is equal to T, and

thus is a subset (but not a proper subset) or T
◌ Can be written as: R  T and R  T (or just R
= T)
◌ Let Q = {4, 5, 6}. Q is neither a subset of T
nor a proper subset of T
20
Proper Subsets 2
◍ The difference between “subset” and

“proper subset” is like the difference
between “less than or equal to” and
“less than” for numbers
◍ The empty set is a proper subset of all

sets other than the empty set (as it is
equal to the empty set)
21
Set Cardinality
◍ The cardinality of a set is the number of
elements in a set
◌ Written as |A|
◍ Examples
◌ Let R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then |R| = 5
◌ || = 0
◌ Let S = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. Then |S| = 4
◍ This is the same notation used for vector
length in geometry
◍ A set with one element is sometimes called
a singleton set
22
Set Operations
23
Set operations: Union
AUB
U
A B
24
Set operations: Union
◍ Formal definition for the union of two

sets:
A U B = { x | x  A or x  B }
◍ Further examples
◌ {1, 2, 3} U {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
◌ {New York, Washington} U {3, 4} = {New
York, Washington, 3, 4}
◌ {1, 2} U  = {1, 2}
25
Set operations: Intersection
A∩B
U
A B
26
Set operations: Intersection
◍ Formal definition for the intersection of

two sets: A ∩ B = { x | x  A and x  B }
◍ Further examples
◌ {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}
◌ {New York, Washington} ∩ {3, 4} = 
◌ No elements in common
◌ {1, 2} ∩  = 
◌ Any set intersection with the empty
set yields the empty set
27

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Sets

◍ Although a set can contain (almost) anything, we

◍ Order does not matter

◍ Sets are notated with curly

◍ Sets are usually represented by a

◍ Elements are usually represented by an

◍ Easiest way to specify a set is to

A variation of the simple roster method uses the

{1, 3, 5, 7, … , 9007} is the set of odd

{1, 2, 3, … } is the set of all counting

• Set builder notation has the general form

{variable | descriptive statement }.

The vertical bar (in set builder notation) is always

Set builder notation is frequently used when the

{x | x < 6 and x is a counting number} is the set of all

◍ U is the universal set – the set of all

◌ For the set of the students in this class,

◌ For the set of the vowels of the alphabet,

◌ To differentiate U from U (which is a set

◍ Represents sets graphically

◌ T = { {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} }

◌ V = { {{1}, {{2}}}, {{{3}}},

{ {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} } }

◍ Note that 1 ≠ {1} ≠ {{1}} ≠

one element being the empty set)

◍ Replace  by { }, and you get: { } ≠ { {

equal that way

◍ Note that any set is a subset of

the elements of S are elements of

less than or equal to 5

◌ Let R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. R is equal to T, and

◍ The difference between “subset” and

◍ The empty set is a proper subset of all

◍ Formal definition for the union of two

◍ Formal definition for the intersection of

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