TRANSPORT & STORAGE

OF MATERIALS
TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF
MATERIALS
In this section the principal means used for the transport and storage of process materials:
gases, liquids and solids are discussed briefly.
Further details and full descriptions of the equipment will also be discussed as well as can
be found in various handbooks.
GASSES
The type of equipment best suited for the pumping of gases in pipelines depends on the flow-
rate, the differential pressure required, and the operating pressure.(FDP)
In general, fans are used where the pressure drop is small, <35 cm H2O (0.03 bar); axial flow
compressors for high flow-rates and moderate differential pressures; centrifugal compressors for
high flow-rates and, by staging, high differential pressures.
Reciprocating compressors can be used over a wide range of pressures and capacities, but are
normally only specified in preference to centrifugal compressors where high pressures are
required at relatively low flow-rates.
Reciprocating, centrifugal and axial flow compressors are the principal types used in the
chemical process industries.
A more comprehensive selection guide is given in Table 10.16. Diagrammatic sketches of the
compressors listed are given in Figure 10.61.
VACCUM PRODUCTION
The production of vacuum (sub-atmospheric pressure) is required for many chemical
engineering processes; for example, vacuum distillation, drying and filtration.
The type of vacuum pump needed will depend on the degree of vacuum required, the capacity
of the system and the rate of air in leakage.(CVI)
Reciprocating and rotary positive displacement pumps are commonly used where moderately
low vacuum is required, about 10 mmHg (0.013 bar), at moderate to high flow rates; such as
in vacuum filtration.
Steam-jet ejectors are versatile and economic vacuum pumps and are frequently used,
particularly in vacuum distillation. They can handle high vapour flow rates and, by using several
ejectors in series, can produce low pressures, down to about 0.1 mmHg (0.13 mbar).
Diffusion pumps are used where very low pressures are required (hard vacuum) for processes
such as molecular distillation.
 STORAGE OF GASSES
Gases are stored at low pressure in gas holders similar to those used for town gas, which are a
familiar sight in any town. The liquid sealed type are most commonly used.
These consist of a number of telescopic sections (lifts) which rise and fall as gas is added to or
withdrawn from the holder.
The dry sealed type is used where the gas must be kept dry. In this type the gas is contained by a
piston moving in a large vertical cylindrical vessel.
Water seal holders are intrinsically safer for use with flammable gases than the dry seal type; as
any leakage through the piston seal may form an explosive mixture in the closed space between
the piston and the vessel roof.
Gases are stored at high pressures where this is a process requirement and to reduce the storage
volume. For some gases the volume can be further reduced by liquefying the gas by pressure or
refrigeration. Cylindrical and spherical vessels (Horton spheres) are used.
Details of the construction of gas holders can be found in text books on Gas Engineering; Meade
(1921), Smith (1945).
 SOLID TRANSPORTATION
The movement and storage of solids is usually more expensive than the movement of liquids
and gases, which can be easily pumped down a pipeline. The best equipment to use will
depend on a number of factors:(LNET)
1. The throughput.
2. Length of travel.
3. Change in elevation.
4. Nature of the solids: size, bulk density, angle of repose, abrasiveness, corrosiveness, wet or
dry.
SOLID TRANSPORTATION
Belt conveyors are the most commonly used type of
equipment for the continuous transport of solids.
They can carry a wide range of materials economically
over long and short distances; both horizontally or at an
appreciable angle, depending on the angle of repose of the
solids.
A belt conveyor consists of an endless belt of a flexible
material, supported on rollers (idlers), and passing over
larger rollers at each end, one of which is driven.
The belt material is usually fabric-reinforced rubber or
plastics; segmental metal belts are also used. Belts can be
specified to withstand abrasive and corrosive materials.
SOLID TRANSPORTATION
Screw conveyors, also called worm conveyors, are used for
materials that are free flowing. The basic principle of the screw
conveyor has been known since the time of Archimedes.
The modern conveyor consists of a helical screw rotating in a
U-shaped trough. They can be used horizontally or, with some
loss of capacity, at an incline to lift materials.
Screw conveyors are less efficient than belt conveyors, due to
the friction between the solids and the flights of the screw and
the trough, but are cheaper and easier to maintain.
They are used to convey solids over short distances, and when
some elevation (lift) is required. They can also be used for
delivering a metered flow of solids.
SOLID TRANSPORTATION
The most widely used equipment where a vertical lift is required is the
bucket elevator. This consists of buckets fitted to an endless chain or belt,
which passes over a driven roller or sprocket at the top end.
Bucket elevators can handle a wide range of solids, from heavy lumps to
fine powders, and are suitable for use with wet solids and slurries. The
mechanical conveying of solids is the subject of a book by Colijn (1985).
 STORAGE OF SOLIDS
The simplest way to store solids is to pile them on the ground in the open air. This is satisfactory
for the long-term storage of materials that do not deteriorate on exposure to the elements; for
example, the seasonal stock piling of coal at collieries and power stations.
For large stockpiles, permanent facilities are usually installed for distributing and reclaiming the
material; travelling gantry cranes, grabs and drag scrapers feeding belt conveyors are used.
For small, temporary, storages mechanical shovels and trunks can be used. Where the cost of
recovery from the stockpile is large compared with the value of the stock held, storage in silos or
bunkers should be considered.
 STORAGE OF SOLIDS
Overhead bunkers, also called bins or hoppers, are
normally used for the short-term storage of materials
that must be readily available for the process.
They are arranged so that the material can be
withdrawn at a steady rate from the base of the bunker
on to a suitable conveyor. Bunkers must be carefully
designed to ensure the free flow of material within the
bunker, to avoid packing and bridging.
Jenike (1967) and Jenike and Johnson (1970), has
studied the flow of solids in containers and developed
design methods. All aspects of the design of bins and
hoppers, including feeding and discharge systems, are
covered in a book by Reisner (1971).
LIQUIDS
The selection of pumps for liquids is discussed in Chapter 5. Descriptions of most of
the types of pumps used in the chemical process industries are given in Volume 1,
Chapter 8.
Several textbooks and handbooks have also been published on this subject: Garay
(1997), Karassik (2001) and Parmley (2000).
The principal types used and their operating pressures and capacity ranges are
summarised in Table 10.17 and Figure 10.63. Centrifugal pumps will normally be the
first choice for pumping process fluids, the other types only being used for special
applications such as the use of reciprocating and gear pumps for metering.
PUMP SELECTION
Pumps can be classified into two general types:
1. Dynamic pumps, such as centrifugal pumps.
2. Positive displacement pumps, such as reciprocating and diaphragm pumps.
The single-stage, horizontal, overhung, centrifugal pump is by far the most commonly
used type in the chemical process industry. Other types are used where a high head or
other special process considerations are specified.
Pump selection is made on the flow rate and head required, together with other process
considerations, such as corrosion or the presence of solids in the fluid.
The chart shown in Figure 5.6 can be used to determine the type of pump required for a
particular head and flow rate.
TRANSPORTATION OF
LIQUIDS
Liquids used in the chemical industries differ considerably in physical
and chemical properties, and it has been necessary to develop a wide
variety of pumping equipment.
The two main forms are the positive displacement type and centrifugal
pumps.
In the former (PD), the volume of liquid delivered is directly related to
the displacement of the piston and therefore increases directly with
speed and is not appreciably influenced by the pressure.
This group includes the reciprocating piston pump and the rotary gear
pump, both of which are commonly used for delivery against high
pressures and where nearly constant delivery rates are required.
TRANSPORTATION OF
LIQUIDS
In the centrifugal type a high kinetic energy is imparted to
the liquid, which is then converted as efficiently as possible
into pressure energy.
For some applications, such as the handling of liquids which
are particularly corrosive or contain abrasive solids in
suspension, compressed air is used as the motive force
instead of a mechanical pump.
An illustration of the use of this form of equipment is the
transfer of the contents of a reaction mixture from one vessel
to another.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING PUMP
CHOICE
The following factors influence the choice of pump for a particular operation.
(1) The quantity of liquid to be handled. This primarily affects the size of the pump and
determines whether it is desirable to use a number of pumps in parallel.
(2) The head against which the liquid is to be pumped. This will be determined by the
difference in pressure, the vertical height of the downstream and upstream reservoirs and by
the frictional losses which occur in the delivery line. The suitability of a centrifugal
pump and the number of stages required will largely be determined by this factor.
(3) The nature of the liquid to be pumped. For a given throughput, the viscosity largely
determines the friction losses and hence the power required. The corrosive nature will
determine the material of construction both for the pump and the packing. With
suspensions, the clearances in the pump must be large compared with the size of the
particles.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING PUMP
CHOICE
(4) The nature of the power supply. If the pump is to be driven by an electric
motor or internal combustion engine, a high-speed centrifugal or rotary
pump will be preferred as it can be coupled directly to the motor. Simple
reciprocating pumps can be connected to steam or gas engines.
(5) If the pump is used only intermittently, corrosion problems are more
likely than with continuous working.
The cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump must always be considered,
and it may be advantageous to select a cheap pump and pay higher
replacement or maintenance costs rather than to install a very expensive
pump of high efficiency.
STORAGE OF LIQUIDS
Liquids are usually stored in bulk in vertical cylindrical steel tanks. Fixed and
floating-roof tanks are used.
In a floating-roof tank a movable piston floats on the surface of the liquid and is
sealed to the tank walls.
Floating-roof tanks are used to eliminate evaporation losses and, for flammable
liquids, to obviate the need for inert gas blanketing to prevent an explosive mixture
forming above the liquid, as would be the situation with a fixed-roof tank.
Horizontal cylindrical tanks and rectangular tanks are also used for storing
liquids, usually for relatively small quantities.
THANKS