Database Principles:

Fundamentals of Design,
Implementation, and Management
Tenth Edition

Chapter 1
The Database Approach
 Objectives
2

In this chapter, you will learn:

The difference between data and information
What a database is, the various types of databases,
and why they are valuable assets for decision making
The importance of database design
How modern databases evolved from file systems

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 Objectives (cont’d.)
3

About flaws in file system data management

The main components of the database system
The main functions of a database management
system (DBMS)

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 Introduction
4

Good decisions require good information derived

from raw facts
Data is managed most efficiently when stored in a
database
Databases evolved from computer file systems
Understanding file system characteristics is
important

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 Why Databases?
5

Databases solve many of the problems encountered

in data management
 Used in almost all modern settings involving data
management:
 Business
 Research
 Administration
Important to understand how databases work and
interact with other applications

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 6

DATA, INFORMATION
& KNOWLEDGE

Database
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 Data
7

Data are raw facts and figures that on their own

have no meaning
Data represents unorganized and unprocessed
facts
Usually data is static in nature
It can represent a set of discrete facts about events
Data is prerequisite to information
Data can be any alphanumeric characters i.e. text,
numbers, symbols

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 Data Examples
8

Yes, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes

42, 63, 96, 74, 56, 86
111192, 111234

None of the above data sets have any meaning

until they are given a CONTEXT and
PROCESSED into a useable form

Database
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 Data Into Information
9

To achieve its aims the organisation will need to

process data into information
Data needs to be turned into meaningful
information and presented in its most useful
format
Data must be processed in a context in order to
give it meaning

Database
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 Information
10

Data that has been processed within a context to

give it meaning

OR

Data that has been processed into a form that gives

it meaning

Database
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 Examples

In the next 3 examples

explain how the data
could be processed to
give it meaning

What information can

then be derived from
the data?

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 Example 1

Yes, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes,

Raw Data No, Yes, No, Yes, Yes

Responses to the market

Context research question – “Would
you buy brand x at price y?”
Processing

Information ???
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 Example 2

Raw Data 42, 63, 96, 74, 56, 86

Jamal’s scores in the six ICT

Context modules

Processing

Information ???
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 Example 3

111192, 111234
Raw Data

The previous and current

Context readings of a customer’s
electricity meter
Processing

Information ???
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 Knowledge

 By knowledge we mean human understanding of a subject matter that

has been acquired through proper study and experience.
 Knowledge is a combination of information, experience and
insight that may benefit the individual or the organization. 
 Knowledge is usually based on learning, thinking, and proper
understanding of the problem area.
 Knowledge is not information and information is not data.
 Knowledge is derived from information in the same way information is
derived from data.
 We can view it as an understanding of information based on its
perceived importance or relevance to a problem area.
 It can be considered as the integration of human perceptive processes
that helps them to draw meaningful conclusions.

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 Knowledge Examples

Using the 3 previous examples:

 A Marketing Manager could use this information to
decide whether or not to raise or lower price y

 Jamal’s teacher could analyse the results to determine

whether it would be worth him re-sitting a module

 Looking at the pattern of the customer’s previous

electricity bills may identify that the figure is abnormally
low and they are fiddling the electricity meter!!!

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 Knowledge Workers

Knowledge workers have specialist knowledge that

makes them “experts”
 Based on formal and informal rules they have learned through
training and experience

Examples include doctors, managers, librarians,

scientists…

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 Suggested answers to examples
 Example 1
We could add up the yes and no responses and calculate

the percentage of customers who would buy product X at
price Y. The information could be presented as a chart to
make it easier to understand.
 Example 2
 Adding Jamal’s scores would give us a mark out of 600
that could then be converted to a grade. Alternatively we
could convert the individual module results into grades.
 Example 3
 By subtracting the second value from the first we can
work out how many units of electricity the consumer has
used. This can then be multiplied by the price per unit to
determine the customer’s electricity bill.

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 Summary

Information = Data + Context + Meaning

Processing
Data – raw facts and figures

Information – data that has been processed (in a context) to give it meaning

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 Data vs. Information

Information
Data
data
raw facts
with context
processed
no contextdata
value-added
just numberstoand
data
text
 summarized
 organized
 analyzed

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 Data vs. Information

Data: 51015
Information:
 5/10/15 The date of your final exam.
 $51,015 The average starting salary of an accounting major.
 51015 Zip code of Bronson Iowa.

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 Data vs. Information
Data Information
 6.34
SIRIUS SATELLITE RADIO INC.
 6.45
 6.39
$7.20
 6.62
$7.00
 6.57
 6.64 $6.80

Stock Price
 6.71 $6.60

 6.82 $6.40
 7.12 $6.20
 7.06
$6.00

$5.80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Last 10 Days

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 Data  Information  Knowledge
Data

Summarizing the data

Averaging the data
Selecting part of the data
Graphing the data
Adding context
Adding value

Information

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 Data  Information  Knowledge
Information

How is the info tied to outcomes?

Are there any patterns in the info?
What info is relevant to the problem?
How does this info effect the
system?
What is the best way to use the info?
How can we add more value to the
info?

Knowledge

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 The Characteristics of Valuable Information
25

Database
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 The Characteristics of Valuable Information (continued)
26

Database
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 27

Good decision making is the key to

organizational survival
Data management: focuses on proper
generation, storage, and retrieval of data

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 Introducing the Database
28

Database: shared, integrated computer structure

that stores a collection of:
 End-user data: raw facts of interest to end user
 Metadata: data about data
 Provides description of data characteristics and relationships in
data
 Complements and expands value of data
Database management system (DBMS): collection of
programs
 Manages structure and controls access to data

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 Role and Advantages of the DBMS
29

DBMS is the intermediary between the user and the

database
 Database structure stored as file collection
 Can only access files through the DBMS
DBMS enables data to be shared
DBMS integrates many users’ views of the data

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30
 Role and Advantages of the DBMS (cont’d.)
31

Advantages of a DBMS:
 Improved data sharing
 Improved data security
 Better data integration
 Minimized data inconsistency
 Improved data access
 Improved decision making
 Increased end-user productivity

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Types of Databases
32

Databases can be classified according to:

 Number of users
 Database location(s)
 Expected type and extent of use
Single-user database supports only one user at a
time
 Desktop database: single-user; runs on PC
Multiuser database supports multiple users at the
same time
 Workgroup and enterprise databases

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 Types of Databases (cont’d.)
33

Centralized database: data located at a single site

Distributed database: data distributed across several
different sites
Operational database: supports a company’s day-to-
day operations
 Transactional or production database
Data warehouse: stores data used for tactical or
strategic decisions

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 Types of Databases (cont'd.)
34

Unstructured data exist in their original state

Structured data result from formatting
 Structure applied based on type of processing to be performed
Semistructured data have been processed to some
extent
Extensible Markup Language (XML) represents data
elements in textual format
 XML database supports semistructured XML data

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35
 Why Database Design Is Important
36

Database design focuses on design of database

structure used for end-user data
 Designer must identify database’s expected use
Well-designed database:
 Facilitates data management
 Generates accurate and valuable information
Poorly designed database:
 Causes difficult-to-trace errors

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 Evolution of File System Data Processing
37

Reasons for studying file systems:

 Complexity of database design is easier to understand
 Understanding file system problems helps to avoid problems
with DBMS systems
 Knowledge of file system is useful for converting file system to
database system
File systems typically composed of collection of file
folders, each tagged and kept in cabinet
 Organized by expected use

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 Evolution of File System Data Processing (cont'd.)
38

Contents of each file folder are logically related

Manual file systems
 Served as a data repository for small data collections
 Cumbersome for large collections
Computerized file systems
 Data processing (DP) specialist converted computer file
structure from manual system
 Wrote software that managed the data
 Designed the application programs

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 Evolution of File System Data Processing (cont'd.)
39

Initially, computer file systems resembled manual

systems
As number of files increased, file systems evolved
 Each file used its own application program to store, retrieve,
and modify data
 Each file was owned by individual or department that
commissioned its creation

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40
41
42
 File System Redux: Modern End-User Productivity Tools
43

Ubiquitous use of personal productivity tools can

introduce the same problems as the old file systems
Microsoft Excel
 Widely used by business users
 Users have become so adept at working with spreadsheets,
they tend to use them to complete tasks for which spreadsheets
are not appropriate – database substitute

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 Problems with File System Data Processing
44

File systems were an improvement over manual

system
 File systems used for more than two decades
 Understanding the shortcomings of file systems aids in
development of modern databases
 Many problems not unique to file systems
Even simple file system retrieval task required
extensive programming
 Ad hoc queries impossible
 Changing existing structure difficult

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 Problems with File System Data Processing (cont'd.)
45

Security features difficult to program

 Often omitted in file system environments
Summary of file system limitations:
 Requires extensive programming
 Cannot perform ad hoc queries
 System administration is complex and difficult
 Difficult to make changes to existing structures
 Security features are likely to be inadequate

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 Structural and Data Dependence
46

Structural dependence: access to a file is dependent

on its own structure
 All file system programs must be modified to conform to a new
file structure
Structural independence: change file structure
without affecting data access
Data dependence: data access changes when data
storage characteristics change
Data independence: data storage characteristics do
not affect data access

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 Structural and Data Dependence (cont'd.)
47

Practical significance of data dependence is

difference between logical and physical format
Logical data format: how human views the data
Physical data format: how computer must work with
data
Each program must contain:
 Lines specifying opening of specific file type
 Record specification
 Field definitions

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 Data Redundancy
48

File system structure makes it difficult to combine

data from multiple sources
 Vulnerable to security breaches
Organizational structure promotes storage of
same data in different locations
 Islands of information
Data stored in different locations is unlikely to be
updated consistently
Data redundancy: same data stored unnecessarily
in different places

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 Data Redundancy (cont'd.)
49

Data inconsistency: different and conflicting

versions of same data occur at different places
Data anomalies: abnormalities when all changes in
redundant data are not made correctly
 Update anomalies
 Insertion anomalies
 Deletion anomalies

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 Lack of Design and Data-Modeling Skills
50

Most users lack the skill to properly design databases

 Despite multiple personal productivity tools being available
Data-modeling skills
 Vital in the data design process
Good data modeling facilitates communication
between the designer, user, and the developer

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 Database Systems
51

Database system consists of logically related data

stored in a single logical data repository
 May be physically distributed among multiple storage facilities
 DBMS eliminates most of file system’s problems
 Current generation stores data structures, relationships
between structures, and access paths
 Also defines, stores, and manages all access paths and components

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52
 The Database System Environment
53

Database system: defines and regulates the

collection, storage, management, use of data
Five major parts of a database system:
 Hardware
 Software
 People
 Procedures
 Data

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54
 The Database System Environment (cont'd.)
55

Hardware: all the system’s physical devices

Software: three types of software required
 Operating system software
 DBMS software
 Application programs and utility software

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 The Database System Environment (cont'd.)
56

People: all users of the database system

 System and database administrators
 Database designers
 Systems analysts and programmers
 End users
Procedures: instructions and rules that govern the
design and use of the database system
Data: the collection of facts stored in the database

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 The Database System Environment (cont'd.)
57

Database systems are created and managed at

different levels of complexity
Database solutions must be cost-effective as well as
tactically and strategically effective
Database technology already in use affects selection
of a database system

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 DBMS Functions
58

Most functions are transparent to end users

 Can only be achieved through the DBMS
Data dictionary management
 DBMS stores definitions of data elements and relationships
(metadata) in a data dictionary
 DBMS looks up required data component structures and
relationships
 Changes automatically recorded in the dictionary
 DBMS provides data abstraction and removes structural and
data dependency

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59
 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
60

Data storage management

 DBMS creates and manages complex structures required for
data storage
 Also stores related data entry forms, screen definitions, report
definitions, etc.
 Performance tuning: activities that make the database perform
more efficiently
 DBMS stores the database in multiple physical data files

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61
 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
62

Data transformation and presentation

 DBMS transforms data entered to conform to required data
structures
 DBMS transforms physically retrieved data to conform to
user’s logical expectations
Security management
 DBMS creates a security system that enforces user security and
data privacy
 Security rules determine which users can access the database,
which items can be accessed, etc.

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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
63

Multiuser access control

 DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to ensure concurrent
access does not affect integrity
Backup and recovery management
 DBMS provides backup and data recovery to ensure data safety
and integrity
 Recovery management deals with recovery of database after a
failure
 Critical to preserving database’s integrity

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
64

Data integrity management

 DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules
 Minimizes redundancy
 Maximizes consistency
 Data relationships stored in data dictionary used to enforce
data integrity
 Integrity is especially important in transaction-oriented
database systems

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
65

Database access languages and application

programming interfaces
 DBMS provides access through a query language
 Query language is a nonprocedural language
 Structured Query Language (SQL) is the de facto query
language
 Standard supported by majority of DBMS vendors

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)
66

Database communication interfaces

 Current DBMSs accept end-user requests via multiple different
network environments
 Communications accomplished in several ways:
 End users generate answers to queries by filling in screen forms
through Web browser
 DBMS automatically publishes predefined reports on a Web site
 DBMS connects to third-party systems to distribute information
via e-mail

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managing the Database System:
A Shift in Focus
67

Database system provides a framework in which

strict procedures and standards enforced
 Role of human changes from programming to managing
organization’s resources
Database system enables more sophisticated use of
the data
Data structures created within the database and
their relationships determine effectiveness

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managing the Database System:
A Shift in Focus (cont'd.)
68

Disadvantages of database systems:

 Increased costs
 Management complexity
 Maintaining currency
 Vendor dependence
 Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Preparing for Your Database Professional Career
69

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary
70

Data are raw facts

Information is the result of processing data to reveal
its meaning
Accurate, relevant, and timely information is the key
to good decision making
Data are usually stored in a database
DBMS implements a database and manages its
contents

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont'd.)
71

Metadata is data about data

Database design defines the database structure
 Well-designed database facilitates data management and
generates valuable information
 Poorly designed database leads to bad decision making and
organizational failure
Databases evolved from manual and computerized
file systems

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont'd.)
72

In a file system, data stored in independent files

 Each requires its own management program
Some limitations of file system data management:
 Requires extensive programming
 System administration is complex and difficult
 Changing existing structures is difficult
 Security features are likely inadequate
 Independent files tend to contain redundant data
 Structural and data dependency problems

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont'd.)
73

Database management systems were developed to

address file system’s inherent weaknesses
DBMS present database to end user as single
repository
 Promotes data sharing
 Eliminates islands of information
DBMS enforces data integrity, eliminates
redundancy, and promotes security

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.