CHAPTER 2: MINERALS

CONTENTS
Introduction
Identification of Minerals and Physical Properties
Microscopic Properties of minerals
Classification of Minerals
-silicate
- non-sillicate
Clay Minerals
Civil Engineering Importance of Rock Forming
Minerals
 INTRODUCTION
From the earliest time, man has found important uses of
minerals.

E.g. clay for bricks and pottery; quartz and jade for
weapons, garnet, amethyst and other coloured stones for
ornaments and also gold, silver and copper for
ornaments and utensils.

An in depth study of geology usually begins with an

introduction to mineral considering that earth's solid
surface is composed of rocks and soils that are primarily
mineral aggregates which is a naturally occurring
elements and compounds.

Mineralogy is therefore a subdivision of geology since

minerals constitute the rocks of the earth's crust.
In civil engineering, the study of minerals is important because:

The minerals, rocks, and soils that occur at and beneath the
earth's surface are the materials with which the engineer must
work.

In the designing of any structure, engineers must be able to

evaluate and distribute natural materials present at site to base
the design upon this assessment, which is impossible without
the general understanding of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the minerals and rocks that make up the
earth's crust.

Knowledge of minerals is essential for engineers who deals

with earth materials since minerals are partially responsible for
the physical and mechanical properties of rock and soil
encountered in mines, tunnels and excavations.

In industry, minerals are directly incorporated into chemicals,

abrasives, and fertilizers and are processed into thousands of
other useful products.
 The Nature and Origin of Minerals
Minerals are formed in various ways and different conditions. Most of the
minerals require thousands of year to develop and others need just a few
years. There are few cases that need only a few hours to develop.

The mineral formations takes places either in the molten rock or magma,
near the Earth surface or deep in the Earth crust as a result of transforming.

What is a mineral?

They occur naturally as inorganic solids.

They have a specific internal structure; that is, their atoms are precisely
arranged into a crystalline solid.

They have a chemical composition that varies within definite limits and can
be expressed by chemical formula.

They have definite set of physical properties (hardness, cleavage, crystal

form etc) that result from their crystalline structure and composition.
Physical Properties of Minerals
The minerals can be identified by their physical properties, which are
characteristics that can be observed or determined by simple tests.

Since mineral has a definite chemical composition and a definite internal

crystalline structure, all specimens of a given mineral, regardless of when
or where they were formed, have the same physical and chemical
properties.

The physical properties are:

(a) Crystal form and shape (external appearance)
(b) Colour
(b) Streak
(c) Cleavage and fracture
(d) Luster
(e) Hardness
(f) Reaction with acid
Crystal form and shape (external appearance)

The crystal faces reflect the internal symmetry of the

crystal structure that makes the mineral unique.

MINERALS are characterized by their crystal structures.

Crystal structures consist of definite arrangements of the

atoms of the elements that make up the minerals.

In contrast to chemical molecules, which have defined

sizes, crystal structures have no size limits although a
crystal structure does have a basic building unit called a
unit cell.

In a crystal, there can be any number of unit cells

repeating in any direction.
Cont’d
Therefore the decisive factor in determining the
external appearance and the physical properties
of a mineral is its internal structure which is
formed by the arrangement of the smallest
structure parts, the atoms, ions or molecules. By
packaging in regular order then it forms as
crystal lattice.

Minerals with a crystal lattice are called

crystalline, those without a crystal structure are
amorphous.
 CRYSTAL LATTICE
Schematic presentation
of the crystal lattice of
NaCl. For each Na atom
there is one Cl atom.
Each Na is surrounded by
Cl and each Cl is
surrounded by Na. The
charge on each Cl is -1
and the charge on each
Na is +1 to give a
charged balanced crystal.
The six crystal systems, with sketches of typical
mineral forms are:

(1) Isometric: (2)Tetragonal:                                   

                   
Where all angles are 90 Where all angles are 90 degrees, two
degrees and all axes are axes are equal in length and the third
equal in length axis is of a different length.
Cont’d
(3) Hexagonal:      (4)Orthorhombic:               
                                                    
Where there are three axes of Where all axes are at 90
equal length in the same plane degrees to one another, but
but at 120 degrees to one another all axes have different
and a forth axis, perpendicular to lengths.
the plane of the other three axes
that differs in length.
Cont’d
(5) Monoclinic: (6) Triclinic:
                                                   
Where all three axes are of Where all three axes are of
different lengths and one different length and all
interaxial angle is not 90 angles are different from
degrees. one another.
SOME SYMMETRICAL EXAMPLES

ISOMETRIC DIAMOND TETRAGONAL WULFENITE

ORTHORHOMBIC TANZANITE MONOCLINIC GYPSUM

Cont’d

HEXAGONAL BERYL TRIGONAL QUARTZ variety AMETHYST

TRICLINIC MONTEBRASITE AMORPHOUS AMBER

 Colour
The colour of the mineral = seen by eye.

Colour results from a mineral’s chemical composition, impurities

that may present in the sample, flaws or damage in the internal
structure, the light in the room or strong reflective surfaces.

Unfortunately, even though color is the easiest physical property

to determine, it is not the most useful in helping to characterize a
particular mineral. The problem is some minerals display a
rainbow of colors (shown by the mineral fluorite (CaF 2) ).

Therefore, colour is a general rather than specific indicator.

Quartz, for example, ranges through the spectrum from clear,
colourless crystals to purple, red, white, grey and jet black.
The many colors of fluorite
 Streak
Streak - colour of finely powdered mineral particles produced by
scraping the specimen along a roughened surface such as
porcelain plate.

The mark left behind can be a characteristic feature of the mineral.

The streak is not necessarily the same as the colour of the

mineral, haematite, for example produces a reddish brown streak,
even though the sample may have a metallic grey appearance.

The limitation of a streak plate is that it can only be used on

minerals with a hardness less than seven.

The combination of luster, color, and streak may be enough to

permit identification of the mineral.
 Cleavage and fracture
The internal structure of the mineral is responsible for an extremely
useful group of properties involving its strength.

There are two ways in which a mineral can break – Cleavage and
fracture.

Most minerals, when broken are observed to split along particular

planes. These features are called cleavage planes.

The cleavage direction is usually but not always parallel to one of

the crystal faces. Micas are examples of minerals with excellent
cleavage in one direction.

Some minerals do not have a cleavage (quartz) and the surface of

rupture is more irregular known as fracture.
Examples of Cleavage Fracture
 Luster
Luster - property that results from the manner in which light is reflected from a mineral.

In another words luster is the shine of a mineral.

Luster is described in terms of the degree of brightness.

The terms to describe luster are :

metallic, earthy, waxy, greasy, vitreous (glassy), adamantine (or brilliant, as in a faceted diamond).

Other shiny, but somewhat translucent or transparent luster (glassy, adamantine), along with dull,
earthy, waxy, and resinous luster, are grouped as non-metallic.

Metallic : like polished metal e.g. galena

Submetallic : less brilliant
Dull : e.g. chalk
Vitreous : like broken glass e.g. quartz
Cont’d
Type of Lustre:

Vitreous Luster – a mineral having a glassy shine. E.g. Quartz and

Calcite.

Pearly Lustre – a mineral having a pearly shine. E.g. Muscovite.

Metallic lustre – a mineral with a metallic shine. E.g. Magnetite (Iron Ore).

Silky lustre – a mineral with a silky shine. E.g. Asbestos.

Resinious lustre – a mineral with a greasy shine like resin. E.g. Talc.

Admantine lustre – The mineral having a diamond like shine.

E.g. Diamond and Zircon
Cont’d
Transparency:

Transparency is the degree to which a medium allows light to pass through it.

The transparency may be either opaque, translucent, or transparent.

Type of Transparency:

Opaque – A mineral which does not pass any light, and nothing can be seen
through it. The light is refracted again and again at many boundary surfaces until it
finally becomes reflected and absorbed. Granular, fibrous or columnar as well as
aggregates always opaque. E.g. Orthoclase, Magnetite And Hornblende.

Transparent - Mineral which allows the light pass through fully and objects on the
other sides are seen clearly through the mineral. E.g. Colourless Quartz and
calcite.

Semi Transparent – Mineral which allows light pass partially and objects are seen
hazy through the mineral. E.g. Slightly milky white varieties Quartz and Calcite.

Translucent – A mineral which allows only some diffused light to pass through it.
E.g. milky white varieties Quartz and Calcite.
Cont’d

Transparent - Quartz

Semi Transparent- Sulfur

 Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a mineral's resistance to abrasion.

This property is easily determined and is used widely for field

identification of minerals In case of mineral identification,
hardness is a relative scale that refers to the difficulty of
scratching the mineral.

The hardness is described using an arbitrary scale of ten

standard minerals. The scale is called the MOH's scale of
hardness.

The hardness of any object is controlled by the strength of

bonds between atoms and is measured by the ease or
difficulty with which it can be scratched.
 Reaction with acid
When dilute hydrochloric acid (typically
10%) is dripped onto some minerals a
reaction takes place.

On calcite (CaCO3), bubbles of carbon

dioxide are produced; in some iron
sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is
produced
 Silicate Mineral
What are silicate minerals?

A group of minerals contains SiO44- as the dominant polyanion. In

these minerals the Si4+ cation is always surrounded by 4 oxygens in
the form of a tetrahedron.

Because Si and O are the most abundant elements in the Earth, this
is the largest group of minerals and is divided into subgroups based
on the degree of polymerization of the SiO4 tetrahedra.

Silicate minerals are complex in both chemistry and crystal structure

but every silicate minerals contains a basic structural unit called the
silica tetrahedron with crystal structure.

Approximately 30% of all minerals are silicates and some geologists

estimate that the
t crust has been about 95% silicate minerals, of
which some 60% is feldspar and 12% quartz.
Structure and Classification of the Silicates

In all silicate structures investigated so far the silicon

atoms are in fourfold coordination with oxygen.

This arrangement appears to be universal in these

compounds, and the bonds between silicon and oxygen
are so strong that the four oxygen are always found at
the corners of a tetrahedron of nearly constant
dimensions and regular shape, whatever the rest of the
structure may be like.

Hence the existence of a silicon tetrahedron will make a

mineral as a silicate mineral and its absence will make it
as a non-silicate mineral.
The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the basic building block of the silicate
minerals. This is the most important building block in geology because it
is the basic unit for 95% of the minerals in the crust
Silicate classification is based on the following
types of linkages:

1. Single chains – pyroxene

2. Double chains – amphiboles

3. Two dimensional sheets minerals - micas,

chlorites, and clay minerals.

4. Three dimensional frameworks - feldspar and

quartz
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedral groups can form single chains, double
chains and sheets by sharing of oxygen ions among silica ions

Single chain Double chain

Sheet
 Rock Forming Minerals
Minerals vary greatly in their chemical composition and physical
properties.

Before we begin the study of rocks it is necessary to know the chief

rock forming minerals.

Although there are more than 2000 known minerals, only a few are
abundant in the most common rock forming minerals and can be
identified by its physical properties by simple tests.

Minerals are classified according to chemical composition and

structure.

The composition of the most common rock forming minerals is limited

by the abundant of elements in the crust.

In fact, only eight elements constitute about 98% of the weight of the
earth's crust.
Oxygen and Silicon make up approximately 75% of
weight of rocks.

Silicon and Oxygen occur on combination with other

abundant element to form silicate minerals.

This group is called the silicate group because all its

members contain a specific structural combination of
silicon and oxygen, even though most silicate
minerals also contain other elements.

Thus silicate minerals is the chief rock forming

minerals.
 Quartz
Most common of silica group minerals.

Crystallization from the magma took place below 867°C and stable
practically over the whole range of geological conditions.

Present in silica-rich igneous rocks both volcanic and plutonic and can
be recognized by glassy grains of irregular shape without cleavage.

Stable both physically and chemically, therefore difficult mineral to

alter or breakdown once formed.

Important constituent in most metamorphic rocks, usually colourless or

white, but can occur in practically any shade, glassy luster.

Can be utilized in construction industry.

Quartz Mineral
 Feldspar group
Most important group, abundant and constitute the most
of rock forming minerals.

Make up to 60% of the earth's crust Found almost on all

of the igneous rocks, in some sedimentary and many
metamorphic rocks.

Two major types of feldspar: Potassium feldspar (K­

feldspar) and Plagioclase feldspar.

Good cleavage in two directions, porcelain luster and

hardness of 6.
Cont’d
The plagioclase feldspars:
– Albite, (Sodium aluminum silicate)
– Oligoclase, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
– Andesine, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
– Labradorite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Bytownite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Anorthite, (Calcium aluminum silicate)

The K-feldspars or alkali felspars:

– Microcline, (Potassium aluminum silicate)
– Sanidine, (Potassium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Orthoclase, (Potassium aluminum silicate)
 Feldspar Mineral

Albite Oligoclase

Andesine Anorthite
 Mica
Micas are a group of monoclinic minerals and are
characterized by perfect cleavage.

Typically paper thin, shiny, elastic cleavage plates.

Only two common occurring mica known as biotite (dark

brown to black), usually less commercial value and
muscovite (colourless or slightly tinted).

Abundant in granite and in many metamorphic rocks and

is also a significant component of many sandstones.
 Pyroxene
High temperature minerals found in many
igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Usually dark coloured (dark green to

black) and contains silicates of iron and
magnesium.

Occurs in basic and ultrabasic rocks.

 Olivine
Occurs chiefly in basic and ultrabasic rocks with (MgFe)2
SiO4 present.

Crystallizes at a high temperature, over 1000oC, one of

the first minerals to form from basic magmas, and
common in basalt.

The only mineral clearly visible in the hand specimen.

Probably the major constituent of the material beneath

the Earth's crust.
 Amphiboles
This mineral has much in common with pyroxenes and
consist of complex silicates which are magnesium,
calcium and iron.

Hornblende the most abundant amphibole is a common

constituent of igneous and metamorphic rock.

Colour ranges from green to black.

Common in metamorphic rock known as amphibolite.

 Calcite
Composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and principal mineral of
limestone.

Can be precipitated directly from seawater and removed from it by

organisms to make shells.

Dissolved in groundwater and reprecipitated as new crystals in

caves and fractures in rock.

Soft (3.0) and easy to scratch, effervesces (bubbles) in dilute

hydrochloric acid, perfect cleavage in three directions but not at right
angle.

Major component of limestone and major mineral metamorphic rock,

marble.
 Dolomite
Composed of magnesium and carbonate (CO2).

widespread in sedimentary rocks, forming when

calcite reacts with solutions of magnesium
carbonate in seawater or groundwater.

It will effervesces in dilute hydrochloric acid only

if it is in powdered form.
 Clay minerals
Constitute major part of the soil and thus
encountered more frequently than other
minerals.

Form when air and water interact with the

various silicate minerals breaking them to
form clay and other products.
 Halite and Gypsum
Two most common minerals formed by the
evaporation of seawater or saline lake water.

Halite (common salt, NaCI) easily identified by

its taste, very soft and scratched easily with
finger nail.

Gypsum composed of calcium sulphate and

water (CaSO42H2O).
 Chlorite (MgFe)5Al(Si3AI)O10(OH)8

A green flaky minerals formed by hydrous

silicates of magnesium and aluminum.

Found in igneous rocks and in

metamorphic rocks such as chlorite-schist
and in some clays.
 Serpentine Mg6Si4O10(OH)8
An alteration of olivine, pyroxene or
hornblende.

Change from olivine to serpentine may be

brought about by action of water and
silica.

Found in basic and ultrabasic rocks.

 Talc Mg3Si4O1O(OH)3
Soft flaky mineral, white or greenish white, easily
scratched by finger nails.

Occurs as a secondary product in basic and ultrabasic

rocks and in talc-schist.

Kaolin (China Clay) AI4 Si4O10(OH)8

Derived from breakdown of feldspar by action of water and
carbon dioxide.
White or grey, soft with texture of flour and clayey smell when
damp.
 Non Silicate Minerals
Refer Table 2.0 for common, economically important non-silicate mineral.

Oxides and Hydroxides:

These are minerals that are form by combination of various cations with
oxygen.

Some examples of this type of minerals are hematite, ilmenite, magnetite,

Bauxite, Limonite and Cassiterite.

Carbonates and Sulfates:

Consist of framework similar to the silica tetrahedra.

An important mineral in this group is gypsum, the main ingredient in building

materials.

The most important carbonate minerals are calcite which combines calcium with
the carbonate ion, and dolomite which contains calcium and magnesium in its
structure.
Table 2.0: Examples of important non-silicate minerals
Halides:

Often occurring as chemical deposited

sediments formed by evaporation and as
vein minerals in igneous rocks. Example of
halide mineral is halite or rock salt deposit
from the evaporation of enclosed bodies of
salt water.
Minerals which make up the three broad categories of rocks

quartz, biotite, muscovite, amphiboles (e.g. hornblende), pyroxenes (e.g. augite),

Igneous rocks
orthoclase, olivine

parent igneous rocks - quartz and feldspar the earth's surface minerals ­clay
Sedimentary rocks minerals, hydrous aluminum silicates, carbonates, calcite and dolomite, those
deposited from saline waters - rock salt and gypsum

quartz, feldspar, amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, garnet chlorites, the carbonates

Metamorphic rocks
metamorphosed limestone