Materials Selection and Design

For selection, one must establish a link between materials and

function, with shape and process playing also a possibly
function
important role (now ignored.)
Materials
AREAS OF DESIGN CONCERN Attributes: physical,
Function- support a load, contain a mechanical, thermal,
pressure, transmit heat, etc. electrical, economic, shape
What does component do? environmental.

Objective- make thing cheaply, light weight,

increase safety, etc., or combinations of these.
What is to be maximized or minimized? process

Constraints- make thing cheaply, light weight,

increase safety, etc., or combinations of these.
What is non-negotiable conditions to be met?
What is negotiable but desired conditions?
Following “Materials Selection in Mechanical Design”, M. Ashby

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Design & Selection: Materials Indices
Structural elements perform physical functions (carry load or heat, store energy,..),
and so they must satisfy certain functional requirements specified by the design,
such as specified tensile load, max. heat flux, spring restoring force, etc.

Material index is a combination of materials properties that characterizes the

Performance of a material in a given application.

Performance of a structural element may be specified by the

functional requirements, the geometry, and the material’s properties.

PERFORMANCE:
P[ (Functional needs, F); (Geometric, G); (Material Property, M)]

For OPTIMUM design, we need to MAXIMIZE or MINIMIZE the functional P.

Consider only the simplest cases where these factors form a separable equation.
P = f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Examples of Materials Indices
Function, Objective, and Constraint Index

Tie, minimum weight, stiffness E/

Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E1/2/

Beam, minimum weight, strength 2/3/

Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E1/2/Cm Cm =cost/mass

Beam, minimum cost, strength 2/3/Cm

Column, minimum cost, buckling load E1/2/Cm

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage YS2/E

 =thermal cond
Thermal insulation, minimum cost, heat flux 1/( Cm)
 =elec. cond
Electromagnet, maximum field, temperature rise  C p

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Design & Selection: Materials Indices
PERFORMANCE: (using separable form) P = f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)

When separable, the optimum subset of materials can be identified

• without solving the complete design problem,
• knowing details of F and G.

There is then enormous simplification and performance can be

optimized by focusing on f3(M), which is the materials index

S= safety factor should always be included!

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Price and Availability of Materials
• Current Prices on the web(a): TRENDS
-Short term: fluctuations due to supply/demand.
-Long term: prices increase as deposits are depleted.

• Materials require energy to process them:

- Energy to produce - Cost of energy used in
materials (GJ/ton) processing materials ($/GJ)(g)
Al 237 (17)(b) elect resistance 25
PET 103 (13)(c) propane 11
Cu 97 (20)(b) natural gas 9
steel 20(d) oil 8
glass a http://www.statcan.ca/english/pgdb/economy/primary/prim44.htm

13(e) a
b
http://www.metalprices.com
http://www.automotive.copper.org/recyclability.htm
paper c http://members.aol.com/profchm/escalant.html
9(f) d
e
http://www.steel.org.facts/power/energy.htm
http://eren.doe.gov/EE/industry_glass.html
Recycling indicated in green. f http://www.aifq.qc.ca/english/industry/energy.html#1
g http://www.wren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/rebriefs/cb5.html

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Relative Cost (in $) of Materials

$ /kg
$ =
($ /kg ) ref material

• Reference material:
-Rolled A36 carbon steel.

• Relative cost fluctuates less than

actual cost over time.

Based on data in Appendix

C, Callister, 6e.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Materials Selection Examples in Mechanical
Design with Separable Performance Factor
PERFORMANCE: functional needs , geometry, and materials index
P = f1(F) f2(G) f3(M) ---> optimize the material index f3(M).

Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod

Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension
Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection
Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chapter 6)
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (some from M.F. Ashby)

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
A Tie-rod is common mechanical component.
A = x-area Functional needs: F, L, f
F • Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F.
• NO failure. Stress must be less than f. (f=YS, UTS)
• L is usually fixed by design, can vary Area A.
• While strong, need to be lightweight, or low mass.
-Strength relation: - Mass of rod:
F σf m = ρLA
≤
A S

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:

€ ρ minimize for small m
m ≥ (FS)(L)
σ€f
σf
Or Maximize Materials Index: M =
For light, strong, tie-rod ρ
€
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004
 Example 1’: square rod (it’s all the same!)

c
L
F, δ • Carry F without failing; fixed initial length L.
-Strength relation: - Mass of bar:
σf F
= M = ρLc 2
S c2

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:

€ ρ
M = (FLS)
σf
minimize for small M
specified by application
€
• Maximize the Materials Performance Index:
(strong, light tension members) σf
Mindex =
ρ

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Maximize M = f / Consider log f vs log 
For fixed M: log M = log f – log  = constant = C

• What are units of M=f / ?

1000 100
= =
M M • For fixed M, look at
log f = (1/1) log  + C
0
=1
M • For fixed M, you look for lines
of slope = 1.

• Along each line materials have

the same M values! But NOT the
same materials properties (f or
 ) e.g. some less dense (lighter).

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension

c
L
F, δ • Bar must not lengthen by more than 
under force F; must have initial length L.
- Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar:
F δ
=E (= E) m = ρLc 2
c2 L

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:

FL2€ρ
m=
δ E
minimize for small m
specified by application
€ E
• Maximize the Materials Index: M=
(stiff, light tension members) ρ

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection

F Bending is common mode of loading,

b
L b e.g., golf clubs, wing spars, floor joists.

=deflection • Bar with initial length L must not deflect by more

than  under force F.
- Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar:
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
F ≥ C1EI = C1E b 4 = C1E A 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

m = b2 Lρ = ALρ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

δ L3 L3 12 L3 12
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:

specified by €
⎛ ⎞1/2
application
m≥ 12S ρ E1/2
⎛ ⎞
(L3) 1/2 ⎟⎟ Maximize
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ € ⎜
⎜
C1L
⎟ ⎜
M=
⎜⎜
⎝
⎟⎟
⎠
E ⎟⎠⎜
⎝ ρ
Light, Stiff Beam
minimize for small m
€
If only beam height can change (not A), then M= (E1/3/) (Car door) I  b3 w
If only beam width can change (not A), then M= (E/) €
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004
 Performance of Square Beam vs. Fixed Height or Width

Light, Stiff Plate E/

Light, Stiff Beam E1/2/

Light, Stiff Panel E1/3/

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chpt. 6)

Mt
2R
L • shaft must carry moment, Mt, with length L.
Mass plus Twisting Moment, Mt:  = 2Mt/R3
τ - Strength relation: - Mass of bar:
τf 2M t
= m = ρπR2 L
S πR 3

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:

2€/ 3 ρ
€ m = (2 π SM t ) L
τ 2f / 3

specified by application minimize for small M

€
• Maximize the Material’s Index: τ 2f / 3
(strong, light torsion members) M=
ρ

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Ashby Plot: Strength vs Density (on log scale)

M = 30 has 1/3 the mass of

M =10 (mass  1/M  ).

2/3 100
M = τρ ⇒

log  = 3/2 log  30

+ 3/2 logM 10

* All materials that lie on these lines will perform equally for strength-per-mass basis.
However, each line has a different Materials M index, or overall Performance P index.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Data Overview:
Strong & Light Tension/Torsion Members
Increasing M
Strength,  (MPa) for strong
f
10 4 Ceramics
torsion members
Cermets
10 3 PMCs
Steels
2 || grain Metal
10
alloys
o od
10 w Polymers
Increasing M grain = 3/2 = 1
1 e
op lope
for strong sl s
Adapted from Fig. 6.22, Callister
tension 0.1 6e. (Fig. 6.22 adapted from M.F.
members 0.1 1 10 30 Ashby, Materials Selection in
Mechanical Design, Butterworth-
Density,  (Mg/m 3) Heinemann Ltd., 1992.)

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Strength vs Density

• Additional constraints may

be added, such as strength
having minimum value, e.g.,
f > 300 GPa.

• Seach area is then limited

to the area in plot above all
lines (if maximizing).

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Other Material Indices: Cost factor

Considering mass

Maximize:
M = 2/3/

CRFP are best!

Considering M = 2/3/Cm
(Cost/mass)*mass
22x10–3
Maximize: 13x10–3
M = 2/3/Cm 11x10–3
9x10–3
4340 Steel is best! 1x10–3

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

Details: Strong, Light Torsion Members
τ 2f / 3
• Maximize the Performance Index: P=
ρ
• Other factors:
--require f > 300MPa.
--Rule out ceramics and glasses: KIc too small.
• Numerical Data:
material  (Mg/m3) f (MPa) P (MPa)2/3m3/Mg)
CFRE (vf=0.65) 1.5 1140 73
GFRE (vf=0.65) 2.0 1060 52
2.8 300 16
Al alloy (2024-T6)
4.4 525 15
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V)
7.8 780 11
4340 steel (oil
quench & temper) Data from Table 6.6, Callister 6e.

• Lightest: Carbon fiber reinf. epoxy

(CFRE) member.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

Details: Strong, Low-Cost Torsion Members

• Minimize Cost: Cost Index ~ m$ ~ $/M (since m ~ 1/M)

• Numerical Data:
material M (MPa)2/3m3/Mg) $ ($/M)x100
CFRE (vf=0.65) 73 80 112
GFRE (vf=0.65) 52 40 76
Al alloy (2024-T6) 16 15 93
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 15 110 748
4340 steel (oil 11 5 46
quench & temper)
Data from Table 6.7, Callister 6e.

• Lowest cost: 4340 steel (oil quench & temper)

• Need to consider machining, joining costs also.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
(From Ashby “Matierals Selection in Mechanical Design”)

Radius, r A slender column of fixed intial length L uses less material

than a fat one; but must not be so slender than it buckles
Buckle under load F.
deflection
L - No buckling relation: - Cost objective:
d
2 C = mCm = ALρCm
N π EI
F ≤Fcrit = 2
L Cm is the cost/kg of
Load less than Euler Load. (usually processed)
N given by end constraint on column. material.
€
• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:
⎞1/2⎛ ⎞1/2 Maximize ⎛ 1/ 2 ⎞
C≥ 4
⎛
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ F ⎟ C⎛
L 1/2
3⎜⎜m ρ ⎞
⎟ E ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜
nπ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝ L2 ⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝ E ⎟
⎠
Cheap, Stiff Beam
⎜
⎝
⎟
C m ρ ⎟⎠
specified by
application
€
minimize for small m

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Performance of Stiff but Cost Effective Beam

With cost considered, now

polymers and metals area
useful!

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg
(Note this uses previous example from Ashby.)

Luigi Tavolina, furniture designer, conceives of a lightweight table of simplicity, with a flat
toughened glass top on slender, unbraced, cylindrical legs.
For attractiveness, legs must be solid (to be thin) and light as possible (to make table easy to
move). Legs must support table top and load without buckling.

• What material would you recommend to Luigi?

- Critical Elastic Load: - Mass of leg:
2 EI 3 ER 4 m = ρπR2 L
F ≤π =π
L2 4L2
• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
1/2 ⎡ 1/2 ⎤
⎛
4P ⎞ ⎛ ⎡
2⎞⎢ ρ ⎤
€Maximize E
€m≥ ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
L
⎜ ⎟
⎥
1/2 ⎥
M1 =⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎢
⎣E ⎦ ⎢
⎣
ρ ⎥
⎦

• For slenderness, get R for Critical Load Eq.:

1/4 1/4
⎛
4Pcrit ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1/2 ⎞⎡⎢ 1 ⎤⎥ M 2= E
r= ⎜
⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ L
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎢⎣ E ⎥
⎦
2 indices to meet
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004
€
Example 5: (cont)
1/2 ⎡ ⎤

M = E ⎥ ⎢
Material indices: 1 ρ ⎥⎥ and M2= E ⎢
⎢
⎦ ⎣
M1= 6 (GPa)1/2/(Mg/m3)

M2 = E =100 GPa

E1/2/ guideline (slope of 2)

• Wood is good choice.

• So is composite CFRP (higher E).
• Ceramic meets stated design
goals, but are brittle

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
Recall from Hooke’s Law and Resilience, Uel = 2/2E.
We wish to maximize this, but the spring willl be damage if  > ys. Uel = ys2/2E

(Torsion bars and lead spring are less efficient than axial springs because some of
the material is not fully loaded, for instance, the neutral axis it is not loaded at
all!)
Deflection,d
F/2 F/2 Can show that Uel
= ( ys
2
/E)/18

Addition constraint can be added.

F
• If in-service, a spring under goes deflection of d under force F, then ys2/E
has to be high enough to avoid permanent set (a high resilience!).
• For this reason spring materials are heavily SS-strengthening and work-
hardening (e.g, cold-rolled single-phase brass or bronze), SS plus precipitation
strengthening (spring steel).
• Annealing any spring material removes work-hardening, or cause precipitation to
coarsen, reducing YS and making materials useless as a spring!
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004
 Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel
Uses info from leak-before-fail example.
 = pR/t Design requirements
Function: contain pressure, p
R 2a
p Objective: maximum safety
Constraints: (a) must yield before break
t (b) must leak before break
t (c) t small: reduces mass and cost

• Choose t so that at working pressure, p, the stress is less than ys.

• Check (by x-ray, ultrasonics, etc.) that no cracks greater than 2ac are present;
KIc
then the stress required to active crack propagation is σ = Y πa
c

• Safety (should have safety factor, S) achieved for stress less than this, but greater
safety obtained requiring no cracks proposgate even if  = ys (stably deform).
⎡ ⎤2
1 ⎢⎢K Ic ⎥⎥
• This condition ( = ys ) yields
πac ≤ 2 M1 = KIc/ys
Y ⎢⎢⎣σ ys ⎥⎥⎦

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)
• Tolerable crack size is maximized by choosing largest M1 = KIc/ys
• Large pressure vessels cannot always be tested for cracks and stress
testing is impractical. Cracks grow over time by corrosion or cyclic
loading (cannot be determined by one measurement at start of service).
K Ic
• Leak-before-fail criterion (leaks can be detected over lifetime) σ =
Y πt
pR
• Wall thickness was designed to contain pressure w/o yielding, so t ≥
σ ys

• Two equations solved for maximum pressure gives M2 = (KIc)2/ys

• Largest M1 and M2 for smallest ys. FOOLISH for pressure vessel.

• Wall thickness must be thin for lightness and economy.
• Thinnest wall has largest yield stress, so M = 
3 ys

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)

CH
Yield-before-break R
A
M1 = KIc/ys SE
Steels
Leak-before-break Cu-alloys
M2 = (KIc)2/ys Al-alloys

Thin wall, strong M1=0.6 m1/2

M3 = ys

• Large pressure vessels are

always made of steel.
• Models are made of Cu,
for resistance to corrosion.
• Check that M2 favors steel. M3=100 MPa
• M3=100 MPa eliminates Al.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Optimal Magnet Coil Material (see CDROM)
• High magnetic fields permit study(2) of:
- electron energy levels,
Pulsed magnetic
- conditions for superconductivity capable of 600,000 gauss
field during 20ms period.
- conversion of insulators into conductors.
• Largest Example:
- short pulse of 800,000 gauss
(Earth's magnetic field: ~ 0.5 Gauss)
• Technical Challenges:
- Intense resistive heating Fractured magnet coil.
(Photos from NHMFL,
can melt the coil. Los Alamos National Labs,
- Lorentz stress can exceed NM (Apr. 2002) by P.M.
Anderson)
the material strength.
• Goal: Select an optimal coil material.
(1) Based on discussions with Greg Boebinger, Dwight Rickel, and James Sims, National High Magnetic
Field Lab (NHMFL), Los Alamos National Labs, NM (April, 2002).
(2) See G. Boebinger, Al Passner, and Joze Bevk, "Building World Record Magnets", Scientific
American, pp. 58-66, June 1995, for more information.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Lorentz Stress & Heating
current
N
L =turns
length
Itotal
of each turn
• Applied magnetic field, H:

H = N I/L

• Lorentz "hoop" stress: • Resistive heating: (adiabatic)

elect. resistivity
Iμo H R
I2 ρe
σf
σ= (≤ )
A S ΔT = Δt (< ΔTmax )
A2 c v
A
σ
I
R
temp increase specific heat
during current
€Magnetic field
pulse of t
out of plane.

Force
= Iμ o H
length

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Magnet Coil: Performance Index
• Mass of coil: • Applied magnetic field:
m = dAL H = N I/L

• Eliminate "free" design parameters A, I from the

stress & heating equations (previous slide):
--Stress requirement --Heating requirement
H2 1 σf H Δt ΔTmax 1 cv
≤ ≤
m 2πR2 Lμ o N ρ d m 2π RL ρ d ρe

specified by application specified by application

Performance Index P€1: Performance Index P2:
maximize for large H2/M maximize for large Ht1/2/M

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 Magnet Coil: Cost Index
• Relative cost of coil: • Applied magnetic field:
$=$M H = N I/L

• Eliminate M from the stress & heating equations:

--Stress requirement --Heating requirement

H2 1 σf H Δt ΔTmax 1 cv
≤ ≤
$ 2 πR 2 Lμ N ρ d $ $ 2π RL ρ d $ ρ e
o

specified by application specified by application

Cost Index C1: Cost Index C2:
maximize for maximize for
large H2/$ large Ht1/2/$
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004
 Indices For A Coil Material
• From Appendices B and C, Callister 6e:
Material f d $ cv e P1 P2 C1 C2
1020 steel (an) 395 7.85 0.8 486 1.60 50 2 63 2.5
1100 Al (an) 90 2.71 12.3 904 0.29 33 21 3 1.7
7075 Al (T6) 572 2.80 13.4 960 0.52 204 15 15 1.1
11000 Cu (an) 220 8.89 7.9 385 0.17 25 5 3 0.6
17200 Be-Cu (st) 475 8.25 51.4 420 0.57 58 3 1 <0.1
71500 Cu-Ni (hr) 380 8.94 12.9 380 3.75 43 1 3 <0.1
Pt 145 21.5 1.8e4 132 1.06 7 19 <1 <0.1
Ag (an) 170 10.5 271 235 0.15 16 <1 <1 <0.1
Ni 200 462 8.89 31.4 456 0.95 52 2 2 <0.1
units MPa g/cm3 -- J/kg-K -m3 f/d (cv/e)0.5 P1/$ P2/$
d
Avg. values used. an = annealed; T6 = heat treated & aged;
st = solution heat treated; hr = hot rolled
• Lightest for a given H: 7075 Al (T6) P1
• Lightest for a given H(t)0.5: 1100 Al (an) P2
• Lowest cost for a given H: 1020 steel (an) C1
• Lowest cost for a given H(t)0.5: 1020 steel (an) C2

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004

 SUMMARY
• Material costs fluctuate but rise over long term as:
- rich deposits are depleted,
- energy costs increase.
• Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly.
• Materials are selected based on:
- performance or cost indices.
• Examples:
- design of minimum mass, maximum strength of:
• shafts under torsion,
• bars under tension,
• plates under bending,
- selection to optimize more than one property:
• leg slenderness and mass.
• pressure vessel safety.
• material for a magnet coil (see CD-ROM).

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004