Faculty of Medical Sciences

MDSC1201: Cell Biology

Cell Structure and Function

Dr. N. Ojeh
 Lecture Objectives
• By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Describe the ultra-structure and functions of the major

organelles and surface features of eukaryotic cells.

• List the eukaryotic cell organelles and explain their

importance.
 The Cell
• Basic unit of structure and function in living
organisms i.e. “the building block of life”

• The cell theory was first developed in 1839 by

Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

• Cell derived from Latin ‘cellula’ –small room named

by Robert Hooke in 1665

• Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) German pathologist

developed the cell theory further and was credited
with initiating the study of disease at the cellular
level
 Some of the cells and their
specific functions:
• Muscle cell – movement
• Nerve cell – conductivity
• Pancreatic acinar cells – synthesis of enzyme
• Mucous gland cells – secretion of mucous
• Cells of adrenals, testes, ovaries – secretion of steroids
• Cells of kidney – ion transport
• Macrophages – intracellular digestion
• Cells of intestine – metabolic absorption
Prokaryotic cell (e.g. bacteria) Eukaryotic cell (e.g. animal)
• 10-100 µm size
• 1-10 µm size • Membrane-bound nucleus present
• Nucleus absent (anucleated) • Multi-cellular e.g. approx 100
• Single-celled trillion cells (1014 ) in humans
• Cell wall & plasma membrane • Plasma membrane only
present • Organelles present
• Organelles absent • Multiple, linear chromosomes
• Single circular chromosomes with wound on nucleosomes
no nucleosomes
Eukaryotic Cell
Structure
 Cell (plasma) membrane

• 6-10 nm thick and acts as boundary to contain cell contents and

maintain cell integrity
• Consist of a double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are
embedded (fluid mosaic membrane)
• Comprised of Lipid bilayer; phopholipids and cholesterol (for
rigidity)
• The cell's membrane system includes the plasma membrane,
endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, and lysosomes.
 The Plasma Membrane

Outside cell Inside cell

Cell (plasma) Membrane

• Selective barrier
• Transport
• Communication
• Recognition
 Cytoplasm
• Makes up 70% of the cell
• Composed of water, salts and inorganic molecules (High
concentrations of potassium, magnesium, phosphate
(osmotic pressure within cells is similar to that of the
extracellular fluid)
• Approx. 8% of protein
• Contains organelles (Membrane-bound structures)
• Filaments and granules
• Metabolic pathways e.g. glycolysis, HMP
 Organelles
– Nucleus
– Mitochondria
– Rough endoplasmic reticulum
– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Peroxisomes
– Vacuole
– The Cytoskeleton
 Nucleus
• Two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it
coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary
metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

• Nuclear envelope (double membrane; inner and outer) continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum and is perforated by thousands of pores called
nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) that control the passage of molecules in
and out of the nucleus.

• Nuclear lamina (inner membrane) is stabilized by intermediate filament

proteins called lamins.

• Nucleolus

• Contains:
– DNA (genetic codes)
– RNA (essential molecules for protein synthesis)
 Nucleus
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is double helix
composed of 4 deoxyribonucleotides
– Complementary base pairing of cytosine (C) with
guanine (G) and adenine (A) with thymine (T) held
together by hydrogen bonds
– Attached to sugar phosphate backbone

• Chromatin = chromosomal material = DNA, histones,

non-histone proteins, RNA
Central dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA DNA
replication

Transcription (in nucleus)

mRNA
Translation (in cytoplasm)
tRNA + ribsomes
PROTEIN
 Nucleolus
• Discrete densely-stained structure found in the nucleus.

• Organized from specific chromosomal regions called

"nucleolar organizer regions" (NOR).

• ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is transcribed to ribosomal RNA

(rRNA) at this site.

• Role: synthesis of rRNA and assembly of the large and

small subunits of ribosomes.
Normal Cancer
 Mitochondria

• Main function is the conversion of the potential energy of

food molecules into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

• Products of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism are

oxidized to produce energy.

• The number of mitochondria is indicative of the cell’s

metabolic activity
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria have:
– an outer membrane that encloses
the entire structure

– an inner membrane that encloses a

fluid-filled matrix

– Between the two is the

intermembrane space

– Cristae (formed by infoldings of the

inner membrane)

– Own genetic material

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

– Interconnected membrane network of flattened

sheets or elongated tubules and cisternal
spaces (lumen)
– Double layer of lipid molecules and associated
proteins
– Proteins responsible for reactions that occur
within the cytoplasm
– Biosynthesis and transport of proteins and lipids
 Two types of ER

Smooth ER
• Series of membranes without
attached ribosomes that function in
synthesis of lipids and processing of
proteins (including steroid,
carbohydrate and drug metabolism)

Rough ER
• Series of membranes studded with
ribosomes that are the site of protein
production.
 Ribosomes
• Made up of 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein.

• Involved in protein synthesis using genetic information in

mRNA originally transferred from DNA in nucleus in a
process known as translation.

• Two types of ribosomes exist – free and fixed

 Free ribosomes- scattered in the cytoplasm

 Fixed ribosomes- attached to the ER

• No. of ribosomes reflects amount of protein synthesis

This electron micrograph (courtesy of Keith Porter) shows the RER in a
bat pancreas cell. The clearer areas are the lumens.
 The Golgi Apparatus
• aka Golgi body, Golgi complex
• Series of flattened membrane discs called saccules with secretory
granules on its surface.
• Functions in the modification, sorting and packaging of
macromolecules synthesized in the ER and prepares them for export.
• Examples:
• Modification of proteins e.g. addition of carbohydrate chains to
form glycoproteins (Glycosylation)
• Transport of lipids
• Creation of lysosomes
• Site of carbohydrate synthesis
The Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
• Spherical bodies bounded by a single
membrane.
• Formed by budding from the golgi
apparatus.
• Site for intracellular digestion. They
fuse with vesicles containing food
particles ingested by cell.
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes that
come from the golgi that breakdown
large molecules and worn out cell
parts into simple compounds.
• Also termed “suicide bags”
 Lysosomes

•Lysosomal enzymes function at acid pH (acid hydrolases) in

the lysosome (pH 5 c/f to cytosolic pH of 7.2)
• Enzymes Include nucleases, proteases, lipases,
phosphatases, polysaccharidases

Lysosomal storage diseases (LSD):

•Genetic defects can lead to LSD where there is deficiency of

acid hydrolyses causing accumulation of substrates within
lysosomes, resulting in enlargement of these organelles that
interfere with the normal function of the cell.

•Liver and spleen are often enlarged in LSD as they are

abundant with lysosomes.
 Peroxisomes

• Also called microbodies.

• Special vesicles that contain enzymes important for the

removal of toxic substances and the breakdown (by
oxidation) of excess fatty acids.

• They are about the size of lysosomes (0.5-1.5 µm) and are
bound by a single membrane.

• They also resemble lysosomes in being filled with enzymes.

• The enzymes and other proteins destined for peroxisomes

 The Cytoskeleton
Internal scaffold consisting of a system of
filaments and microtubules:
• maintains cell shape
• provides mechanical strength for protection
• movement within the cell (e.g. excretion of
material, intracellular transport of organelles) and
locomotion
• Cell division (e.g. chromosome separation in
mitosis and meiosis)
 The Cytoskeleton
• 3 types of Protein filaments:
• Microfilaments (e.g. actin) - 5 nm
• Microtubules (e.g. tubulin) - 25 nm
• e.g. centrioles
• Intermediate filaments - 10 nm
– Cytokeratin- epithelial cells
– Desmin – smooth/skeletal muscles
– Glial fibrillary acidic protein – astrocytes
– Neurofilament protein – neurone
– Nuclear lamin - nucleus
– Vimentin – mesenchymal cells
The Cytoskeleton
 Centrioles

Left photo: electron micrograph of a cross-section of a centriole with its array

of 9 triplets of microtubules.
Right: Schematic diagram of centriole
 Centrioles
• Pair of self-replicating organelles found within centrosomes
(microtubule organising centre) located just outside the nucleus
• Duplicates just before mitosis
• Produce microtubules
• Role in spindle formation- chromosome separation during cell division

• Centrioles are situated at right angle to each other, made up of nine

bundles of microtubules and are found only in animal cells.

• Mature red blood cells and skeletal muscle cells lack centrioles. Absent
in nerve cells also.

• They appear to help in organizing cell division by forming the spindles

to separate  chromosome pairs during mitosis, but are not essential to
the process.
 Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia- short, numerous complex, Flagella- long, fewer complex

• Both are constructed from microtubules

• Both are motile cellular appendages found in most microorganisms and

animals, but not in higher plants.
• For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the
locomotion of individual organisms e.g. sperm
• In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past
an immobile cell.
• The respiratory tract in humans is lined with cilia that keep inhaled dust,
smog, and potentially harmful microorganisms from entering the lungs.
 Cilia and Flagella
• Each cilium (or flagellum) is made of
a cylindrical array of 9 evenly-
spaced microtubules, each with a
partial microtubule attached to it.
• This gives the structure a "figure 8"
appearance when view in cross
section.
• This electron micrograph shows the
9+2 pattern of microtubules in a
single cilium seen in cross section.
• 2 single microtubules run up through
the center of the bundle, completing
the so-called "9+2" pattern.
• The entire assembly is sheathed in
a membrane that is simply an
extension of the plasma membrane.
 Cilia and Flagella

• Motion of cilia and flagella is created by the microtubules sliding past one another. This requires:
– motor molecules of Dynein, which link adjacent microtubules together, and
– the energy of ATP.
 Epithelial cells

• Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and

the inside cavities of the body (respiratory
tract, gastrointestinal tract)

• Functional units of secretory glands

 Epithelial Cell Specialization
• Cell surface projections
– Cilia: facilitate transport along cell surface
– Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption

• Secretory adaptations
– Well developed ER and Golgi apparatus

• Cell junctions
 Cell junctions
• Specialized junctional areas between epithelial cells
allow for:
– Adherence to each other
– Communication channels

• Three types of junction:

– Occludens type/tight junction (barrier)
– Nexus/gap junction (2nm; communication)
– Adherens type (20nm; adhesion) - e.g. desmosomes
Cell junctions
 CLASS QUIZ!! (1/3)
1. A centriole is an organelle that is:
A. present in the centre of a cell's cytoplasm
B. composed of microtubules and important for organizing the spindle fibres
C. surrounded by a membrane
D. part of a chromosome
 
2. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is:
A. an intracellular double-membrane system to which ribosomes are attached
B. an intracellular membrane that is studded with microtubular structures
C. a membranous structure found within mitochondria
D. only found in prokaryotic cells
 
3. Which of the following statements does not apply to the nuclear envelope?
A. It is a double membrane
B. It has pores through which material enters and leaves
C. It is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
D. It has infoldings to form cristae
 CLASS QUIZ!! (2/3)
4. Lysosomes are formed by budding from which cellular organelle?
A.smooth endoplasmic reticulum
B.Golgi apparatus
C.rough endoplasmic reticulum
D.nucleus
 
5. All peroxisomes carry out this function:
A.break down fats and amino acids into smaller molecules that can be used for energy production by mitochondria
B.digest macromolecules using the hydrolytic enzymes they contain
C.synthesize membrane components such as fatty acids and phospholipids
D.control the flow of ions into and out of the cell

6. Which of the following is the energy supplier for the cell; this organelle contains its own DNA:
A.Lysosome
B.Mitochondria
C.Golgi apparatus
D.Ribosome
 CLASS QUIZ!! (3/3)
7. Which of the following is an enzyme filled organelle for breaking down waste in the cell?
A.Lysosome
B.Mitochondria
C.Golgi body
D.Endoplasmic reticulum
 
8. The major job of the ribosome is to:
A.Make fats
B.Make proteins
C.Breakdown proteins
D.Make sugars
 
9. The cell membrane is composed of:
A.a single layer of proteins
B.a phospholipid bilayer
C.a carbohydrate bilayer
D.a single layer of lipids
 
 
 Web Information

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/cell_bio.html

http://facstaff.cbu.edu/~seisen/EukaryoticCellStructure.htm