Bisotat For Mls
Bisotat For Mls
Bisotat For Mls
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Course Outline
Definitions of terms
Variable types
Scales of measurement
Sources of data
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Course Outline
Tabular presentation
Graphical presentation
Measures of Spread
Measures of Position
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Course Outline
Definitions
Random variables
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Course Outline
Definitions terms
Sampling techniques
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Course Outline
sampling distribution
confidence intervals
hypothesis testing
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Course Outline
Measures of mortality
Measures of fertility
Hospital indices
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What is expected from you
100% attendance
Active participation
Punctuality
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Assessment criteria
Quiz1 – 5%
Quiz2 -5%
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Reference
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Chapter-one
Introduction to Biostatistics
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Objectives
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Definitions of statistics/ biostatistics
Statistics Biostatistics
The application of
It is the science of statistical methods to the
collecting, fields of biological and
health sciences.
organizing,
When the data are derived
Presenting,
from biological science
Analysing, and medicine
Interpretation and
Drawing conclusion
(inferences) from data
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Rationale for studying Biostatistics
Is the new drug better than the commonly used one? How much
better?
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Limitation of statistics
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Types of statistics
Biostatistics
Descriptive Inferential
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Types of statistics
Descriptive statistics
summarize and organize numerical
information or data in to meaningful forms
Helps to identify the general features and
trends in a set of data
by using table, graphs ,measure of central
tendency, and measure of dispersion
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Types of statistics
Inferential statistics
It is a set of methods used to make conclusions
(inference) from sample data to population
Statistical summaries which are common in
inferential statistics:
Principles of probability,
estimation and confidence interval,
hypothesis testing, etc.
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Types of statistics
Inferential statistics
Produce statistical inferences about a population based on
information from a samples taken from the population
samp populati
le on
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Basic Terms in statistics
Population: complete collection of all elements
(scores, people, measurements, and so on to be studied.
Sampling: is the technique of selecting
representative portion of the entire population
Sample: A subset of the population selecting by
sampling techniques
Census: is the collection of data from every
member of the population.
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Basic Terms in statistics
• Parameter: a descriptive measure computed from the data of a
population.
Represented by Greek letters
population mean(μ),population standard deviation (δ)
Statistic: a descriptive measure computed from the data of a
sample.
Represented by Roman letters
sample mean ( ), mode , median, SD(S), Variance, etc.
Data: are observations (measurements) that have been
collected.
It is the raw material for statistics.
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Variable
A characteristic which takes different values in different
persons, places, or things.
Any aspect of an individual or object that is measured (e.g.,
BP) or recorded (e.g., age, sex) and takes any value.
Variables can be broadly classified into:
Categorical or Qualitative and
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Types of variable
Qualitative variable
a variable or characteristic which can not be
measured or expressed in numerical form
but can only be sorted by name or categories
The notion of magnitude is absent or implicit.
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Types of variable
Quantitative variable
A variable that can be measured and
expressed numerically.
Height, weight, # of children, etc.
Has the notion of magnitude.
This data can be continuous or discrete.
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Discrete: It can only have a limited number of
values.
Characterized by gaps or interruptions in the values
the values aren’t just labels, but are actual
measurable quantities.
Can assume only whole numbers
• Examples
– # of bacterial colonies on a plate
– # of accidents in a time period
– # of malaria relapse in a time period
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2. Continuous variable: It can have an infinite number
of possible values
Can take any value within a defined range
Does not possess the gaps or interruptions
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Types of variables
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Types of variables
Variables based on research can be classified
Dependent Variable: variables which can be affected by
explanatory variable and it is the outcome of a study.
Independent variables: are any variables that explain the
response variable.
Confounding variables : Variable that systematically
varies with Independent Variable
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Example
1. In a study to determine whether surgery or
chemotherapy results in higher survival rates
for a certain type of cancer,
Which is the explanatory variable and which
is the response variable?
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Scales of measurement
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1. Nominal scale:
The simplest type of data, in which the values fall
into unordered categories
Uses names, labels, or symbols to assign each
measurement.
– Examples: Blood type, sex, race, marital status,
etc.
The mode is the only appropriate measure of
central tendency
The obvious descriptive summary measure is the
proportion or percentage
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2. Ordinal scale:
Assigns each measurement to one of a limited
number of categories that are ranked in terms of
order.
They have a natural ordering
medians, quartiles and percentiles are the most
appropriate measures of centre and spread
E.g.: Patient status, cancer stages, Likert scales etc.
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3. Interval scale:
Measured on a continuum and differences between
any two numbers on a scale are of known size.
Example: Temp. in oC on 4 consecutive days
Days: A B C D
Temp. oc: 45 50 55 60
For these data, not only is day A with 45o cooler than
day D with 60o, but is 10o cooler.
It has no true zero point. “0” is arbitrarily chosen and
doesn’t reflect the absence of temp.
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4. Ratio scale:
Measurement begins at a true zero point
- Examples: Height, age, weight, BP, etc.
Note on meaningfulness of “ratio”
A 80 kg is two times as heavy as someone who
weighs 40 kg.
This is true even if weight had been measured
in other measurements.
For interval or ratio data, the mean and
standard deviation are appropriate methods
of summarization
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Scales of measurement
Nominal = Naming
Ordinal = Naming + Order
Interval = Naming + Order + Equal Intervals
Ratio = Naming + Order + Equal Intervals +
True Zero
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Degree of precision in measuring Nomin
al
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
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Exercise:- Consider the following
Scales of measurement (types of data)
1. Blood group
2. Temperature (Celsius)
3. Sex
4. Job satisfaction index (1-5)
5. Number of heart attacks
6. Calendar year
7. Serum uric acid (mg/100ml)
8. Number of cases of each reportable disease reported by a
health worker
9. The average weight gain of 6 1-year old dogs with a special
diet supplement was 950 grams last month.
10. Injury severity (a score between 1and 3 is allocated
depending on the severity) – scores 1 and 3 show mild and
very severe respectively.
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Source of Data
Source of data
Internal External
source source
Primary Secondary
source source
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Internal and External Source of Data
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Secondary Data
Secondary data are those that have already
been collected by others.
This Data collected for some purpose other
than the problem at hand.
Secondary data may be available in the
published or unpublished form.
When it is not possible to collect the data by
primary method, the investigator go for
Secondary method.
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Difference between Primary and
Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
• Real time data. • Past data.
• Sure about sources • Not sure about
of data. sources of data.
• Help to give • Refining the problem.
results/finding • Cheap and No time
• Costly and Time consuming process.
consuming process. • Can not know in data
• Avoid biasness of biasness or not
response data
• Less Flexible.
• More flexible.
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Data collection methods?
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Data collection methods
Before any statistical work can be done data must
be collected.
Data collection techniques allow us to
systematically collect data about our objects of
study
Data collection is a crucial stage in the planning
and implementation of a study.
In the collection of data we have to be systematic.
If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult
to answer our research questions in a conclusive
way.
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Data collection methods…
Quantitative
• Interview (Interview – administered /Self – administered)
• Observation
Qualitative
• In-depth interview
• Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• Observation
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1) Observation
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Observation…
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2. Interviewing
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3. Interviewing cont’d…
A) High degree of flexibility /unstructured. :
Usually used when studying sensitive issues or
when the researcher has little understanding of the
problem
Is frequently applied in exploratory studies
(e.g teenage pregnancy, sexual issue, criminal
issues
It is often possible to come back to a topic
discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview
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3. Interviewing cont’d…
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Interview Techniques
Interviewer – administer questionnaire (either
face-to-face or telephone, or other electronic
media such as online internet)
Suited for illiterate study subjects, complex
questions that need further clarifications and
non-private or non-sensitive issues
Self – administer questionnaire (i.e. filled by the
study subjects themselves at spot or through
mails)
suitable for literate study subjects, simple
questions and sensitive matters (e.g. sexual
issues, criminal activities,
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Types of Questions
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions permit free responses
that should be recorded in the respondent’s own
words.
The respondent is not given any possible answers to
choose from.
Such questions are useful to obtain information on:
Facts with which the researcher is not very
familiar,
Opinions, attitudes, and suggestions of
informants, or
Sensitive issues.
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Closed Questions
Closed questions offer a list of possible options or
answers from which the respondents must choose.
When designing closed questions one should try
to:
Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and
mutually exclusive
For example
Have you ever gone to the local village health
worker for treatment?
1. Yes
2. No
Closed questions may also be used if one
does not want to waste the time of the
respondent and interviewer by obtaining
more information than one needs.
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Requirements of questions
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Thank you
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