ECEN 615

Methods of Electric Power

Systems Analysis
Lecture 4: Power Flow

Prof. Tom Overbye

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Texas A&M University
overbye@tamu.edu
Announcements
• RSVP to Alex at zandra23@ece.tamu.edu for the
TAMU ECE Energy and Power Group (EPG)
picnic. It starts at 5pm on September 27, 2019
• Read Chapter 6 from the book
– They formulate the power flow using the polar form for
the Ybus elements
• Homework 1 is due on Thursday September 12

2
Two Bus Newton-Raphson Example
• For the two bus power system shown below, use
the Newton-Raphson power flow to determine the
voltage magnitude and angle at bus two. Assume
that bus one is the slack and SBase = 100 MVA.
Line Z = 0.1j

One 1.000 pu Two 1.000 pu

0 MW 200 MW
0 MVR 100 MVR

 2    j10 j10 
x    Ybus   
 V2   j10  j10 
3
Two Bus Example, cont’d
General power balance equations
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cosik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
Bus two power balance equations
V2 V1 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0
2
V2 V1 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0

4
Two Bus Example, cont’d

P2 (x)  V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0

2
Q2 (x)  V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
Now calculate the power flow Jacobian
 P2 (x) P2 (x) 
  V 2 
2
J ( x)   
 Q 2 (x) Q 2 ( x) 
   V 2 
 2

10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2 

 
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2 
5
Two Bus Example, First Iteration

(0) 0
Set v  0, guess x  
1 
Calculate

(0)
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   2.0 
f(x )   2   1.0 
 V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0   
(0) 10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2  10 0 
J (x )      0 10 
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2   
1
(1) 0  10 0   2.0   0.2 
Solve x    1.0    
1
   0 10     0.9 
6
Two Bus Example, Next Iterations

(1)  0.9(10sin( 0.2))  2.0   0.212 

f(x )   2  
 0.9(  10cos(  0.2))  0.9  10  1.0   0.279 
(1)  8.82 1.986 
J (x )   
 1.788 8.199 
1
(2)  0.2   8.82 1.986  0.212   0.233
x         
 0.9   1.788 8.199   0.279   0.8586 
(2)  0.0145 (3)  0.236
f(x )    x   
0.0190   0.8554 
(3)  0.0000906 
f(x )    Done! V2  0.8554  13.52
 0.0001175 
7
Two Bus Solved Values
• Once the voltage angle and magnitude at bus 2 are
known we can calculate all the other system values,
such as the line flows and the generator reactive power
output 200.0 MW -200.0 MW
168.3 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -100.0 MVR

One 1.000 pu Two 0.855 pu -13.522 Deg

200.0 MW 200 MW
168.3 MVR 100 MVR

PowerWorld Case Name: Bus2_Intro

Note, most PowerWorld cases will be available on
the course website
8
Two Bus Case Low Voltage Solution
This case actually has two solutions! The second
"low voltage" is found by using a low initial guess.
(0)  0 
Set v  0, guess x  
 0.25 
Calculate

(0)
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   2 
f(x )   2    0.875
 V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0   
(0) 10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2   2.5 0 
J (x )      0 5 
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2   
9
Low Voltage Solution, cont'd

1
(1)  0   2.5 0   2   0.8 
Solve x          
 0.25   0 5    0.875   0.075 
(2) 1.462  (2)  1.42  (3)  0.921
f (x )    x   x  
 0.534   0.2336   0.220 

10
 Practical Power Flow Software Note
• Most commercial software packages have built in
defaults to prevent convergence to low voltage
solutions.
– One approach is to automatically change the load model from
constant power to constant current or constant impedance
when the load bus voltage gets too low
– In PowerWorld these defaults can be modified on the Tools,
Simulator Options, Advanced Options page; note you also
need to disable the “Initialize from Flat Start Values” option
– The PowerWorld case Bus2_Intro_Low is set solved to the
low voltage solution
– Initial bus voltages can be set using the Bus Information
Dialog
11
 Two Bus Region of Convergence

Slide shows the region of convergence for different initial

guesses of bus 2 angle (x-axis) and magnitude (y-axis)
Red region
converges
to the high
voltage
solution,
while the
yellow region
converges
to the low
voltage
solution
12
Power Flow Fractal Region of
Convergence
• Earliest paper showing fractal power flow regions
of convergence is by C.L DeMarco and T.J.
Overbye, “Low Voltage Power Flow Solutions and
Their Role in Exit Time Bases Security Measures
for Voltage Collapse,” Proc. 27th IEEE CDC,
December 1988
• A more widely known paper is J.S. Thorp, S.A.
Naqavi, “Load-Flow Fractals Draw Clues to Erratic
Behavior,” IEEE Computer Applications in Power,
January 1997

13
PV Buses
• Since the voltage magnitude at PV buses is fixed
there is no need to explicitly include these voltages
in x or write the reactive power balance equations
– the reactive power output of the generator varies to
maintain the fixed terminal voltage (within limits)
– optionally these variations/equations can be included by
just writing the explicit voltage constraint for the
generator bus

|Vi | – Vi setpoint = 0

14
 Three Bus PV Case Example
For this three bus case we have
 2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 

x  3  f (x)   P3 (x)  PG 3  PD 3   0
   
 V2   Q2 (x)  QD 2 
Line Z = 0.1j

0.941 pu
One 1.000 pu Two -7.469 Deg

170.0 MW 200 MW
68.2 MVR 100 MVR
Line Z = 0.1j Line Z = 0.1j

Three 1.000 pu

30 MW
63 MVR

15
 Modeling Voltage Dependent Load
So far we've assumed that the load is independent of
the bus voltage (i.e., constant power). However, the
power flow can be easily extended to include voltage
depedence with both the real and reactive load. This
is done by making PDi and Q Di a function of Vi :
n
 Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi ( Vi )  0
k 1
n
 Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cosik )  QGi  QDi ( Vi )  0
k 1

16
 Voltage Dependent Load Example
In previous two bus example now assume the load is
constant impedance, so
2
P2 (x)  V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0 V2  0
2 2
Q2 (x)  V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0 V2  0
Now calculate the power flow Jacobian
10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2  4.0 V2 
J ( x)  
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2  2.0 V2 

17
 Voltage Dependent Load, cont'd

(0) 0
Again set v  0, guess x  
1 
Calculate

(0)
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0 V2
2   2.0 
f(x )      
 V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 2 (10)  1.0 V2 2  1.0 

(0) 10 4 
J (x )   
 0 12 
1
(1) 0  10 4   2.0   0.1667 
Solve x    1.0    
1
   0 12     0.9167 
18
Voltage Dependent Load, cont'd

With constant impedance load the MW/Mvar load at

bus 2 varies with the square of the bus 2 voltage
magnitude. This if the voltage level is less than 1.0,
the load is lower than 200/100 MW/Mvar
160.0 MW -160.0 MW
120.0 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -80.0 MVR

0.894 pu
One 1.000 pu Two -10.304 Deg

160.0 MW 160 MW
120.0 MVR 80 MVR

PowerWorld Case Name: Bus2_Intro_Z

19
Generator Reactive Power Limits
• The reactive power output of generators varies to
maintain the terminal voltage; on a real generator
this is done by the exciter
• To maintain higher voltages requires more
reactive power
• Generators have reactive power limits, which are
dependent upon the generator's MW output
• These limits must be considered during the power
flow solution.

20
Generator Reactive Limits, cont'd
• During the power flow once a solution is obtained
there is a check to make sure the generator reactive
power output is within its limits
• If the reactive power is outside of the limits, fix Q
at the max or min value, and resolve treating the
generator as a PQ bus
– this is know as "type-switching"
– also need to check if a PQ generator can again regulate
• Rule of thumb: to raise system voltage we need to
supply more vars

21
 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example
T2
800 MVA
1 T1 5 4 345/15 kV 3 520 MVA
Line 3
345
50kV
mi
400 MVA 800 MVA
15 kV 15 kV
400 MVA 345 kV 40 Mvar 80 MW

Line 2

Line 1
345 kV
15/345 kV 100 mi 200 mi

2
280 Mvar 800 MW
Single-line diagram

This five bus example is taken from Chapter 6 of Power

System Analysis and Design by Glover, Overbye, and Sarma,

6th Edition, 2016 22

 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example
V  PG QG PL QL QGmax QGmin
Bus Type per degrees per per per per per per
unit unit unit unit unit unit unit
Table 1. 1 Swing 1.0 0   0 0  
Bus input
2 Load   0 0 8.0 2.8  
data
3 Constant 1.05  5.2  0.8 0.4 4.0 -2.8
voltage
4 Load   0 0 0 0  
5 Load   0 0 0 0  

Maximum
R’ X’ G’ B’ MVA
Bus-to- per unit per unit per unit per unit per unit
Table 2. Bus
Line input data
2-4 0.0090 0.100 0 1.72 12.0
2-5 0.0045 0.050 0 0.88 12.0
4-5 0.00225 0.025 0 0.44 12.0
23
 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example
Maximum
R X Gc Bm Maximum TAP
per per per per MVA Setting
Table 3. Bus-to- unit unit unit unit per unit per unit
Transformer Bus
input data 1-5 0.00150 0.02 0 0 6.0 —
3-4 0.00075 0.01 0 0 10.0 —
Bus Input Data Unknowns
1 V1 = 1.0, 1 = 0 P1, Q1
2 P2 = PG2-PL2 = -8 V2, 2
Q2 = QG2-QL2 = -2.8
Table 4. Input data
and unknowns 3 V3 = 1.05 Q3, 3
P3 = PG3-PL3 = 4.4
4 P4 = 0, Q4 = 0 V4, 4
5 P5 = 0, Q5 = 0 V5, 5
24
Five Bus Case Ybus

PowerWorld Case Name: GOS_FiveBus

25
Ybus Calculation Details
Elements of Ybus connected to bus 2
Y21  Y23  0
1 1
Y24    0.89276  j 9.91964 per unit
R24  jX 24 0.009  j 0.1
' '

1 1
Y25    1.78552  j19.83932 per unit
R25  jX 25 0.0045  j 0.05
' '

' '
1 1 B24 B25
Y22  '  ' j j
R24  jX 24 R25  jX 25
' '
2 2
1.72 0.88
 (0.89276  j 9.91964)  (1.78552  j19.83932)  j j
2 2
 2.67828  j 28.4590  28.5847  84.624 per unit
26
Initial Bus Mismatches

27
Initial Power Flow Jacobian

28
 Hand Calculation Details

P2 (0)  P2  P2 ( x)  P2  V2 (0){Y21V1 cos[ 2 (0)   1 (0)   21 ]

 Y22V2 cos[  22 ]  Y23V3 cos[ 2 (0)   3 (0)   23 ]
 Y24V4 cos[ 2 (0)   4 (0)   24 ]
 Y25V5 cos[ 2 (0)   5 (0)   25 ]}
 8.0  1.0{28.5847(1.0) cos(84.624)
 9.95972(1.0) cos( 95.143)
 19.9159(1.0) cos( 95.143)}
 8.0  (2.89 10 4 )  7.99972 per unit

J 124 (0)  V2 (0)Y24V4 (0) sin[ 2 (0)   4 (0)   24 ]

 (1.0)(9.95972)(1.0) sin[ 95.143]
 9.91964 per unit
29
Five Bus Power System Solved

One Five Four Three

A A

MVA MVA

395 MW A
520 MW
MVA

114 Mvar slack

337 Mvar

1.000 pu 0.974 pu A A
1.019 pu 80 MW
0.000 Deg -4.548 Deg MV A MVA
-2.834 Deg 40 Mvar
1.050 pu
-0.597 Deg

0.834 pu Two
-22.406 Deg

800 MW
280 Mvar

30
37 Bus Case Example
Aggieland Power and Light A
SLA CK345
45%
MVA
A

77%
MVA

Total Load 1420.0 MW 1.01 pu

A A
HOWDY345
slack
905 MW
Total Losses: 44.40 MW
A

1.00 pu 101% 101% SLA CK138

74%
T EXAS345 MVA MVA
MVA

A
0.96 pu HOWDY138
107% A

23%
A
1.03 pu
MVA MVA
A 40%
T EXA S138 102%
MVA
0.94 pu 53 MW
21 Mvar 1.00 pu
MVA
A
29 MW
72% 1.0875 tap 0.0 Mvar 8 Mvar
1.02 pu HOWDY69
100 MW
279.1 MW 30 Mvar
MVA
A
A
27 MW
1.00 pu TEXA S69 0.98 pu BAT T69 68%
MVA 4 Mvar 128%
A MVA
37 MW 41% 0.99 pu NORTHGAT E69 A A
A
14 Mvar
MVA 99% 18%
22% MVA
12MA N69
MVA
MVA A
0.92 pu BONFIRE69
124.4 MW
A 34% 34 MW
WHITE138
120% MVA
0 Mvar
A
MVA
A
78%
20 MW 40% CENT URY69
0.0 Mvar
MVA
MVA

50 MW
A
8 Mvar 31 MW 78% PLUM138
13 Mvar A
0.91 pu WEB138 MVA
86% 0.96 pu
GIGEM69
0.94 pu MVA A A

MA ROON69 REVEILLE69 93 MW 81% 73% 1.0625 tap 49 MW

82 MW 65 Mvar
MVA MVA

59 MW 17 Mvar
27 Mvar A
0.94 pu
17 Mvar 75%
MVA WEB69
TREE69 0.94 pu 0.99 pu
0.0 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
0.94 pu
A
A

MVA
0 MW 100 MW
30 Mvar
58%
0.0 Mvar
5 MW FISH69
A
MVA
A 68%
68%
50 MW
MVA

93 MW
A
MVA
0.992 pu A
KYLE138 67%
SPIRIT69 58 Mvar 23% 0.90 pu MVA

1.00 pu
MVA

A
A

23% 39%
A
1.0000 tap
YELL69 35% 35 MW
MVA
MVA MVA
0.0 Mvar A

17%
11 Mvar 0.93 pu A

0.94 pu KYLE69 28% MVA

A MVA

25 MW 61 MW
110 MW
A MVA
10 Mvar 17 Mvar
90 MW
14% A

0.98 pu
MVA
23% A

MVA 38%
MVA
A
58 MW A
0.94 pu
A
68% 60%
15% 0.0 Mvar 96 MW MVA
BUSH69 17 Mvar 0.0 Mvar MVA
A
MVA
20 Mvar 33%
0.93 pu 0.93 pu MSC69 MVA A
A

68% 69 MW 59 MW RING69 MVA

MVA
0.93 pu RUDDER69 0 Mvar 6 Mvar
RELLIS69
0.97 pu
38 MW
36 MW
A A
10 Mvar 10 MW 220 Mvar
MW A

45 MW
82% 86% 24 Mvar 60%
MVA MVA MVA

0.94 pu A GGIE138 A GGIE345

RELLIS138 0.95 pu REED69
0.95 pu
0.95 pu HULLA BA LOO138 0 deg A

66%
A MVA A

19% 71%
MVA
A

40%
MVA
0.96 pu REED138
70%
A

MVA
MVA
200 MW
A

56%
MVA
1.02 pu
1.00 pu A

71%
MVA

PowerWorld Case Name: Aggieland37

31
Voltage Control Example: 37 Buses
A
SLA CK3 4 5
MVA
A

MVA

219 MW
1 .0 2 pu RA Y3 4 5
5 2 M var
System Losses: 11.51 MW A A A
slack

1 .0 2 pu MVA MVA SLA CK1 3 8 MVA

T IM 3 4 5
1 .0 1 pu RA Y 13 8
A
A

MVA
A
1 .0 3 pu
T IM1 3 8
MVA
MVA
1 .0 0 pu 3 3 MW A

1 .0 3 pu
1 3 Mvar MVA
A
A
1 5 .9 M var 1 8 MW
1 .0 2 pu RA Y6 9
MVA
MVA 5 Mvar 3 7 MW
A
1 7 MW A

1 .0 2 pu T IM6 9 P A I6 9 1 3 Mvar
1 .0 1 pu MVA 3 Mvar MVA
A

2 3 MW 1 .0 1 pu GRO SS6 9 A
A MVA
6 Mvar MVA
FERNA 6 9
MVA A
1 .0 1 pu WO LEN6 9
21 MW
MO RO 1 3 8
A
MVA

MVA
H ISKY6 9 7 Mvar
A
A
4.8 Mvar
1 2 MW MVA
A MVA

5 Mvar 1 9 MW 1 .0 0 pu MVA
8 Mvar A
1 .0 0 pu BO B1 3 8
P ET E6 9 A

MVA DEMA R6 9
1 .0 0 pu A A
MVA
H A NNA H6 9 5 8 MW
MVA MVA
5 1 MW 4 0 Mvar
4 5 MW
1 5 Mvar A
1 .0 2 pu BO B6 9
1 2 Mvar
2 9 .0 M var MVA
UIUC6 9 0 .99 pu
1 4 .3 Mvar
1 .0 0 pu 1 5 7 MW 5 6 MW
1 2.8 Mvar A

4 5 Mvar
A
MVA 1 3 Mvar LYNN1 3 8
A
0 MW
MVA
A 0 Mvar
A

A
MVA
MVA
MVA 58 MW A
1 4 MW
0 .9 9 7 pu BLT 1 3 8 MVA
3 6 M var MVA 1 .0 0 pu 4 M var
0 .9 9 pu A M A NDA 6 9 A
A

A
3 3 MW SH IMKO 6 9 1 .0 2 pu
HO M ER6 9
MVA
MVA A
7 .4 M var
MVA
1 0 Mvar 0.0 Mvar 1 .0 1 pu
BLT 6 9 MVA
A 1 .0 1 pu
1 5 MW
3 Mvar
A

MVA
HA LE6 9
MVA

A 9 2 MW 1.010 pu 1 5 MW
5 Mvar
1 .0 0 pu 1 0 Mvar
MVA
A

A
A
3 6 MW A
1 .0 1 pu
6 0 MW MVA 1 0 Mvar 7 .2 Mvar MVA
MVA
A
A
MVA
1 2 Mvar
1 .0 0 pu 1 .0 0 pu P A T T EN6 9 MVA

2 0.8 Mvar A
MVA

4 5 MW 1 4 MW RO GER6 9
MVA
1 .0 0 pu WEBER6 9 0 Mvar
LA UF6 9 2 Mvar
1 .0 2 pu
2 3 MW
2 2 MW 0 MW
A A
6 Mvar 14 MW A

20 MW 1 5 Mvar 0 Mvar
MVA MVA 3 M var MVA
9 Mvar
1 .0 2 pu JO1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
LA UF1 3 8 1 .0 2 pu SA V OY6 9 3 8 MW
1 .0 0 pu
3 Mvar
1 .0 1 pu BUCKY1 3 8 A

A MVA A

1 5 0 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 pu SA V OY1 3 8 MVA
A A
-0 Mvar
MVA MVA

1 5 0 MW
A
-0 Mvar

PowerWorld Case Name: Bus37_VoltageControl

MVA
1 .0 3 pu
1 .0 2 pu A

MVA

32
 Power System Operations Overview

• Goal is to provide an intuitive feel for power

system operation
• Emphasis will be on the impact of the transmission
system
• Introduce basic power flow concepts through small
system examples

33
Power System Basics
• All power systems have three major components:
Generation, Load and Transmission/Distribution.
• Generation: Creates electric power.
• Load: Consumes electric power.
• Transmission/Distribution: Transmits electric power
from generation to load.
– Lines/transformers operating at voltages above 100 kV are
usually called the transmission system. The transmission
system is usually networked.
– Lines/transformers operating at voltages below 100 kV are
usually called the distribution system (radial).

34
 Large System Example: Texas 2000
Bus Synthetic System

This case requires the commercial version of PowerWorld

since the GOS Version is limited to 42 Buses
35
 Three Bus PowerWorld Simulator Case
PowerWorld Case Name: B3Slow
Load with Area Name: Home
ACE: -15.5 MW
green Home Area
25.4 MW
MW Load: 316.2 MW
MW Gen: 301.0 MW 25.5 MW

arrows Bus 2 5.3 Mvar

A
MW Losses: 0.28 MW -4.9 Mvar
A
Bus 1
1.00 pu

indicating 210.8 MW
105.4 Mvar
MVA MVA

slack
1.00 pu

amount A A
115.4 MW
-1.9 Mvar

of MW 151.0 MW AGC OFF 34.3 MW

MVA

A A
MVA

10.1 MW
100 MW
AVR ON
flow
10.6 Mvar 3.1 Mvar
121.3 Mvar 10.1 MW
Other Area
MVA MVA
34.5 MW
-3.0 Mvar
-10.0 Mvar
Scheduled Transactions
Note the
1.00 pu
Bus 3
0.0 MW 105.4 MW
Off AGC
150.0 MW
52.7 Mvar
power
Used 39.7 Mvar
AVR ON AGC ON balance at
to control each bus
output of Direction of green arrow is used to indicate
generator direction of real power (MW) flow; the blue
arrows show the reactive power 36
Basic Power Control
• Opening a circuit breaker causes the power flow to
instantaneously (nearly) change.
• No other way to directly control power flow in a
transmission line.
• By changing generation we can indirectly change
this flow.
• Power flow in transmission line is limited by
heating considerations
• Losses (I^2 R) can heat up the line, causing it to
sag.
37
Modeling Consideration – Change
is Not Really Instantaneous!
• The change isn’t really instantaneous because of
propagation delays, which are near the speed of
light; there also wave reflection issues
– This is covered in ECEN 667
Red is the vs end, green the v2 end

38
Transmission Line Limits
• Power flow in transmission line is limited by
heating considerations.
• Losses (I2 R) can heat up the line, causing it to sag.
• Each line has a limit; many utilities use
winter/summer limits.

39
Overloaded Transmission Line

Area Name: Home

ACE: -263.1 MW
Home Area MW Load: 559.2 MW
-162.5 MW MW Gen: 301.0 MW 165.3 MW
Bus 2 39.8 Mvar MW Losses: 4.91 MW -25.8 Mvar Bus 1
A A
1.000 pu
112% 112%
372.8 MW MVA MVA

186.4 Mvar slack

1.000 pu
A
A
363.0 MW
MVA -52.3 Mvar
MVA

-59.2 MW
151.0 MW AGC OFF 18.8 Mvar A A
97.7 MW
100.0 MW
AVR ON -26.5 Mvar
245.0 Mvar MVA MVA
59.8 MW -96.2 MW Other Area
-16.9 Mvar 31.6 Mvar
Scheduled Transactions Bus 3 1.000 pu
0.0 MW 186.4 MW
Off AGC 93.2 Mvar
150.0 MW AGC OFF
107.9 Mvar AVR ON

40
Interconnected Operation
Balancing Authority (BA) Areas
• North American Eastern and Western grids are
divided into balancing authority areas (BA)
– Often just called an area
• Transmission lines that join two areas are known as
tie-lines.
• The net power out of an area is the sum of the flow
on its tie-lines.
• The flow out of an area is equal to

total gen - total load - total losses = tie-flow

41
US Balancing Authorities

42
Area Control Error (ACE)
• The area control error is the difference between the
actual flow out of an area, and the scheduled flow
– ACE also includes a frequency component that we will
probably consider later in the semester
• Ideally the ACE should always be zero
• Because the load is constantly changing, each
utility (or ISO) must constantly change its
generation to “chase” the ACE
• ACE was originally computed by utilities;
increasingly it is computed by larger organizations
such as ISOs
43
Automatic Generation Control
• Most utilities (ISOs) use automatic generation
control (AGC) to automatically change their
generation to keep their ACE close to zero.
• Usually the control center calculates ACE based
upon tie-line flows; then the AGC module sends
control signals out to the generators every couple
seconds.

44
Three Bus Case on AGC
Area Name: Home
ACE: -0.0 MW
Home Area MW Load: 330.2 MW
MW Gen: 330.6 MW
-21 MW 21 MW
MW Losses: 0.40 MW
Bus 2 4 Mvar A
-4 Mvar
A
Bus 1
MVA MVA
220 MW
110 Mvar slack

A
A
100 MW
158 MW MVA 2 Mvar
127 Mvar MVA

-41 MW -21 MW
AGC ON
13 Mvar A A
6 Mvar 100 MW
0 Mvar
41 MW MVA MVA

21 MW
Scheduled Transactions -12 Mvar
-6 Mvar Other Area
Bus 3
0.0 MW
Area AGC Status: Part. AGC 173 MW 110 MW
37 Mvar 55 Mvar
AGC ON

Generation Net tie flow is

is automatically close to zero
changed to match
change in load
45