ELEC 1104

Lecture 6:

Overhead
O h d li
lines andd
underground cables
Power System
y Layout
y
Transmission lines
Distribution lines
 Transmission and Distribution Lines

ƒ Transmission lines are hung from steel

towers through insulator strings, and they
ay be ssingle
may g e ccircuit
cu t oor doub
doublee ccircuit
cu t lines.
es.
ƒ There are usually one or two earthed wires
at the top of tower for lightning protection.
protection
ƒ Distribution lines are usually supported on
i l t pins
insulator i mountt on wooden d or concrete t
poles.
 Sagg and Span
p

Earth wire

Sag
Conductor
tower
Minimum
clearance

S
Span
 Earth Wires

ƒ Overhead lines are Earth wire

usually protected from

lightning by installing
one or two overhead
earth wires positioned to
Line
give suitable shielding conductor Shield
angle
over the line conductors.
ƒ These earth wires are
electrically connected to
the earthed towers.
Insulators
 Overhead lines

ƒ Bare conductors stranded of several wires

for greater flexibility and mechanical
st e gt .
strength.
ƒ Standard number of strands are in either
one of the series:
(a) 1, 7, 19 ……..
(b) 3, 12, 27 …….
Overhead lines
 Conductors
Material Hard drawn Hard drawn Heat treated
C
Copper wire
i Al i i
Aluminium Al i i
Aluminium
wire alloy
Specific gravity 8.89 2.7 2.70
Breaking stress 23-30 10-12 19.2
(tons/sq in)
Conductivity at 20oC 97.4 61 53.5
(% of ICAS)
Resistivity at 20oC 1.774 2.826 3.22
(Ω-m x 10-8)
Coefficient of linear 0.000017 0.000023 0.000023
expansion (oC-1)
Resistivity of International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS) at 20oC = 1.7241 x 10-8 ohm-meter.
 Copper
pp vs Aluminium

ƒ Aluminium is lighter
g but its conductivityy is lower.
ƒ For equal conductivity, aluminium conductor has
1.64 times the cross section of copper, but its
weight is only about half of that of the copper
conductor.
ƒ Aluminium has low tensile strength and high
coefficient of expansion.
ƒ Cost of aluminium is lower and more stable.
 ASCR

ƒ Aluminium conductors are often reinforced byy

steel for greater mechanical strength and are
known as ACSR (Aluminium Conductor, Steel
Reinforced).
ƒ In ACSR the central strands of the conductor are
made
d off galvanized
l i d steell for
f strengthh whereas
h the
h
peripheral strands are made of aluminium for
electrical conductivity.
conductivity
6 aluminium 6 aluminium
1 steel 7 steel
 Bundle conductors

ƒ Bundle conductors composed of two, three

or four stranded conductors are used for
very
ve y high
g vo
voltages.
tages.
ƒ Lower voltage gradient at conductor surface
ƒ Better
B tt heat
h t dissipation
di i ti andd hence
h better
b tt
current rating.

A bundle of 2 A bundle of 3 A bundle of 4

 Corona

ƒ A corona is a luminous ppartial electrical discharge

g
due to ionization of the air surrounding a
conductor.
ƒ The breakdown stress, i.e. the critical field
intensity, of air would depend on the atmospheric
conditions.
di i
ƒ For a given voltage, the maximum field intensity
occurs att th
the conductor
d t surface
f and
d decreases
d as
the conductor radius is increased.
Corona
 Corona

ƒ There is a certain definite loss associated with

corona.
ƒ The ionization current associated with corona
flows in pulses only during the voltage peaks
and is therefore rich in harmonics.
ƒ Ozone is produced in corona and would cause
deterioration to any organic materials nearby.
ƒ Audible noise is produced in corona and hence
is a source of noise pollution.
 Electrical Parameters

ƒ These are distributed parameters by nature:

» Series resistance r Ωm
» Series inductance l H/m
» Shunt capacitance c F/m
» Shunt conductance g S/m

For overhead lines

lines, shunt conductance represents
leakage through insulators or corona loss and is
usuallyy ignored.
g
Transmission Line Model
 Transmission line as a two-port
p

ƒ VS = sending end voltage

ƒ IS = sending end current
ƒ VR = receiving
i i endd voltage
lt
ƒ IR = receiving end current
IS IR

VS Line VR
 Transmission parameters
p

VS = AVR + BIR
IS = CVR + DIR

IS IR

VS A, B, C, D VR
 Line Model

ƒ Nominal π representation (Medium line)

Z = R + jX
IS I IR

VS YC/2 YC/2 VR
 Line Model
I = IR + VRY/2
VS = VR + ZI
= ((1+ZY/2)V
) R + ZIR
IS = I + VSY/2
= Y(1+ZY/4)VR + (1+ZY/2)IR
Hence
A = D = (1+ZY/2), B = Z,
(
C = Y(1+ZY/4) )
 Line Model

ƒ Nominal T representation (Medium line)

(R + jX)/2 (R + jX)/2
IS V IR

VS YC VR
 Line Model

V = VR + IR Z/2
I = YV = YVR + IR YZ/2
IS = IR + I = YVR + (1+YZ/2)IR
VS = V + ISZ/2
= (1+YZ/2)VR + Z(1+YZ/4)IR
Hence
A = D = (1+ZY/2),
B = Y(1+ZY/4)
Y(1+ZY/4), C=YY.
 Line Model

ƒ Series impedance (Short line)

» VS = VR + ZIR; IS = IR

R + jX
IS IR

VS VR
 Example
p

ƒ Given a 33-phase,
phase, 132 kV line 350 km long
with parameters
r = 0.108
0 108 ohm/km; l = 1.37
1 37 mH/km;
g = 0 siemens/km; c = 0.0085 μF/km.
ƒ Load: 50 MVA at 0.8 power factor lagging.

ƒ To determine sending-end voltage, current

and p
power factor.
 Example
p

ƒ Z = ((0.108+j2π×50×1.37×10
j -3) × 350

=155.27∠75.91o Ω
ƒ Y = (j2π 50 0.0085 10-6) × 350
(j2π×50×0.0085×10
= 934.6 ×10-6∠90o Siemens

ƒ VR = 132/√3 = 76.21 kV (phase)

ƒ IR = 50×10
50 103/√3×132
/√3 132 = 218
218.7
7A
ƒ θ = cos-1 0.8 = 36.87o (lagging)
 Example
p

Using short line representation

ƒ IS = IR = 218.7∠-36.87o A
ƒ VS = VR + ZIR
= 76.21+155.27∠75.91o × 0.2187∠-36.87o kV
= 76.21+33.96 ∠39.04o = 104.8 ∠11.78o kV
ƒ Input power factor
= cos (11.78o + 36.87o ) = 0.66 (lagging)
 Example
p

Using nominal π representation

nominal-π
ƒ A = D =1+YZ/2
0 0726∠165 91o
= 1 + 0.0726∠165.91
= 0.9297+j0.0176 = 0.9298 ∠1.08o
ƒ 155 27∠75 91o Ω
B = Z = 155.27∠75.91
ƒ C = Y(1+YZ/4)
934 6 ×10-6(1 + 0.0263∠165.91
= j 934.6 0 0263∠165 91o)
= 910.8 ×10-6 ∠90.38o
 Example
p
ƒ VS = AVR + BIR
= 0.9298 ∠1.08o × 76.21 ∠0o +
155.27∠75.91o × 0.2187∠-36.87o kV
99 95 ∠13.15
= 99.95 ∠13 15o kV
ƒ IS = CVR + DIR
910 8 ×10
= 910.8 10-66 ∠90.38
∠90 38o × 76210 ∠0o +
0.9298 ∠1.08o × 218.7∠-36.87o
171 78∠ 16 75o A
= 171.78∠-16.75
ƒ Input power factor
(13 1 o + 16.75
= cos (13.15 16 o ) = 00.867
86 (lagging)
(l i )
 Underground
g Cables

ƒ Cables contain one or more conductors

within a protective sheath.
ƒ The conductors are separated from each
other and from the sheath by solid
insulating material
material.
ƒ The protective sheath is an impervious
covering
i over insulation
i l ti andd is i usually
ll off
lead. Its main function is to prevent the
ingress of moist
moisture
re to the insulation.
ins lation
 Underground
g Cables

ƒ They may be single-core

single core cables with one
cable per phase or three-core cables with
oonee common
co o lead
ead sheath.
s eat .
ƒ In single-core cables the stranded conductor
is always of round cross-section
cross-section.
ƒ In multi-core cables so-called sector shaped
strands
t d are alsol usedd to
t better
b tt utilize
tili the
th
space within the sheath.
 Cable Insulations

Common insulating materials used in cables

are:
ƒ Oil-impregnated paper
ƒ Vulcanised rubber
ƒ synthetic polymeric dielectrics such as
» polyethylene (PE),
» propylene (PP),
» polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Solid Cables

Single Core Three core

Hessian fillers
servings
g Lead sheaths

Paper
insulation

Stranded
Fabraic conductors Belt
tapes insulation
 Solid Cables

ƒ Single Conductor, paper

paper-insulated
insulated power
cable.
 Solid Cables

ƒ Three
Three-conductor,
conductor, belted, compact
compact-sector,
sector,
paper-insulated cable.
 Solid Cables

ƒ Three
Three-conductor,
conductor, shielded (H
(H-type),
type),
compact-sector , paper-insulated cable.
 Solid Cables

ƒ Three
Three-conductor
conductor solid-type
solid type cable with
protective steel armour.
 Cable Parameters

ƒ Cables have the same distributed electrical

parameters as the overhead lines but
» Capacitance is much higher due to closer
proximity of the conductors.
»SShunt
u loss
oss iss no
o longer
o ge negligible.
eg g b e. thee sshunt
u
loss in the dielectric include
– leakage
– dielectric hysteresis
 Dielectric loss angle
g

ƒ The dielectric loss is usually measured by

the dielectric power factor
I
p f = cos φ
dielectric p.f.
ƒ The dielectric loss angle is
δ = 90 – power factor
f l φ
angle δ
φ
ƒ Since δ is small
V
δ ≈ sin δ = cos φ = dielectric p.f.
 Cable Ratings
g

ƒ The current rating of a cable is limited by

the maximum permissible temperature of its
su at o s.
insulations.
ƒ Depending on the expected loading, we
have the following ratings:
» Continuous rating
» Short time rating
» Cyclic rating
 Cable Rating
g

The steady loading that results in a final

temperature equal to the maximum permissible
value
va ue iss known
ow as tthee co
continuous
t uous rating.
at g.
temp Tmax
current
T

Continuous rating
I

time
 Cable Rating
g

If the loading is applied for a short duration

only, say 1 hour, then the loading without the
a
maximum u temperature
te pe atu e being
be g exceeded
e ceeded iss
known as the (1 hour) short-time rating.
temp Tmax
current
Short-time
rating I
T

time
 Cable Rating
g

For a given cyclic pattern, the maximum load

that can be supplied without the maximum
temperature
te pe atu e being
be g exceeded
e ceeded iss known
ow as the
t e
cyclic rating.
temp Tmax
current
T
cyclic rating
I

time
 Thermal equation
q

ƒ Heat Balance Equation

Heat generated = heat dissipated
+ heat
h t absorbed.
b b d
Heat generated depends on power loss P in the
bl (I2R lloss and
cable d dielectric
di l t i loss)
l )
Heat dissipated depends on the surface area,
method of cooling and temperature difference.
difference
Heat absorbed results in temperature increase
depending on the specific heat.
heat
 Thermal equation
q

Let
P = power loss in cable
λ = emissivity (watt/m2/oC)
A = surface area for heat dissipation (m2)
θ = temperature rise above ambient (oC)
M = mass (kg)
Cp = specific heat (joule/kg/ oC)
 Thermal equation
q

Then with temperature rise dθ in the time

period dt,
Heat generated = P dt
Heat dissipated = λAθ dt
Heat absorbed = MCp dθ
Hence
MCp dθ + λAθ dt = P dt
 Thermal equation
q
This can be written in the form
τ(dθ/dt) + θ = θ∞
where
τ = MCp/λA is the heating time constant.
θ∞ = P/λA is the steady state temperature rise.
rise

The solution is
θ(t) = θ∞ - (θ∞ - θ0)e -t/ τ
where θ0 is the initial temperature rise above ambient
at t = 0.
 Example
p

ƒ Heat run test of a transformer from cold

» Temperature rise after 1 hr – 15o C
» Temperature rise after 2 hr – 27o C

ƒ Determine
D t i
» Final temperature rise if run continuously
» Heating time constant of transformer
 Example
p

From thermal heating equation

θ∞(1 – e-1/τ) = 15 (1)
θ∞(1 – e-2/τ
2/τ) = 27 (2)
Dividing (2) by (1)
(1 + e-1/τ) = 27/15 = 1.8
e-1/τ = 1.8 – 1 = 0.8
∴ θ∞ = 15/(1 – e-1/τ) = 75
τ = -1/ln(0.8)
1/l (0 8) = 4.48
4 48
 Overhead line vs Underground
g cables

ƒ Cost
» Underground cables cost, on average, 8~15
times more than overhead lines.

ƒ Operation
» Charging current for underground cables is
much higher than that of overhead lines and can
use up a lot
l t off the
th currentt carrying
i capacity.
it
The situation gets worse as the voltage
increases.
increases
 Overhead line vs Underground
g cables

ƒ Reliability
» Overhead lines have more outages than
underground
g cables pper unit length,
g , but the
outages are usually shorter in duration.

ƒ Flexibility
Fl ibilit
» Overhead lines can be upgraded to higher
voltages
lt if necessary. Underground
U d d cables
bl
cannot be easily upgraded.
 Overhead line vs Underground
g cables

ƒ Safety
» Underground cables are more safe and are
always
y used in denselyy populated
p p areas for this
reason alone.
ƒ Environment
v o e
» Overhead Line Towers (aesthetic problem)
» EM Field under overhead lines (effect on
human beings)
» Corona (radio interference, noise pollution etc)