Introduction to surveying

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative

positions of various points above on below the surface of the
earth.
The relative positions are determined by measuring
horizontal distances, vertical distances (elevations),
horizontal angles and vertical angles accurately using various
surveying instruments.
After taking the measurements in the field, computations are
done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office. These
plans and maps are used for planning of engineering works,
marking of boundaries, computations of areas and volumes,
and various other purposes. 
 Objectives of surveying
• The objects of surveying can be summarized as
under:
• (1) To take measurements to determine the
relative positions of the existing features on or
near the ground.
• 2) To layout or to mark the positions of the
proposed structure on the grounds
• 3) To determine areas, volumes and other
related quantities
 Classificatio
n of
surveying

3.Based on
instruments

2.Functional 1.Primary
classification division
●
Pla ●
Land
survey
●
Chain
survey
ne ing
City
ing
● ●
Comp
sur survey ass
ing survey
ve ●
Topogr ing
aphica ●
Plane
yin l table
survey
g ing
survey
ing
●
Mines
●
Ge survey
●
Theod
olite
ing
od ●
Hydrol
survey
ogical ing
eti survey
●
Tache
ing ometr
c ●
Engine ic
survey
sur ering
survey ing
Total
ve
●
ing
●
Geolo statio
yin gical
survey
n
survey
g s ing
1.Primary division
Plane surveying
Plane Surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the
curvature of the earth is neglected & it is assumed to be a
flat surface.
Plane Surveying can safely be used when one is concerned
with a small portions of the earth's
Surface and the areas involved are less than 250 sq. km or
so.
Geodetic surveying
Geodetic surveying : It is the type of surveying in which the
curvature of the earth is taken into consideration, and a very
high standard of accuracy is maintained.
 1.Primary division
• Plane Surveying • Geodetic Surveying
• It is used for relatively • It is used for large areas.
small areas. • The surface of the earth is
• A curved line on the considered as curved.
surface of the earth is • The standard of accuracy
considered as is very high. Very precise
mathematically straight. instruments are used.
• The standard of accuracy
is lower than that in
geodetic surveying.
2.Functional classification
1.Land Surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the
boundaries and areas oftracts of land.
These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since
the early civilisation.
These are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or
cadastral surveys.
These surveys are also used to provide data for making a plan of
the area.
2.Topographical Surveys: Topography is defined as the shape
or configuration of the earth's surface. 
The topographic maps show not only the plan but also the
elevations of the terrain.
3. Route Surveying: These surveys are special types of
topographical surveys conducted along a proposed route for a
highway, railway, sewer line, etc
4.Mine Surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the
relative positions and elevations of mines, shafts, bore holes, etc.
for underground works.
In general, mine surveys include both underground surveys and
the related surface surveys.
5. Hydrographic Surveys: These surveys are conducted on or
near the body of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, harbour, Marine
surveys.
6. Engineering Surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to
collect data for the designing and planning of engineering works
such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers, and
water supply lines.
3.Based on instruments
1. Chain surveying :this is the simplest type of surveying in
which linear measurement are taken with tape or chain .
angular measurements are not taken .
Chain surveying is generally used when high accuracy is not
required.
2.Compass Surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal
angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass, in
addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape. the
compass survey is not very accurate. However, it is more
accurate than a chain survey.
3. Levelling: This is a type of survey in which a levelling
instrument is used for determination of relative elevations
(levels) of various points in the vertical plane .
Levelling is used for finding out the difference in elevations and
for finding out the elevations with respect to some reference
plane(datum). Levelling is extremely important in most-of the
engineering works.
4. Plane Table Surveys. In plane table surveys, a map is prepared
in the field while viewing the terrain after determining the
directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements with
a chain or a tape.
The accuracy of the plane table survey is low. Its main advantage is
that the measurements and plotting are done simultaneously in the
field.
5.Theodolite Surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument
for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
The horizontal angles are measured with a theodolite whereas the
linear measurements are made with a tape
6. Tachometric Surveys: A tachometer is a special type of
theodolite which is fitted with a stadia diaphragm having two
horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair. In
tachometric surveying, horizontal angles, horizontal distances
and elevations are measured with
a tachometer.
PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
1. Always Work from the Whole to Part
The first principle of surveying is to work from the whole to the part. The
surveyor should first establish accurately a large main framework consisting
of widely spaced control points. Between the large main framework,
subsidiary small frameworks can be established by relatively less accurate.
The errors in small frameworks are thus localised and are not magnified and
the accumulation of errors is controlled. In the reverse process of working
from the part to the whole, the small frameworks will will be expanded to the
large framework and the errors will get magnified.
For illustration, let us consider three points A, B and C which form the large
main framework ABC (Fig. 1.3). The relative positions of these points can be
determined accurately. These points are located
with a very high standard of accuracy by measuring the distances AB, BC and
CA and plotting on able expanded to the large framework and the errors will
get magnified.
In the reverse process of working from the part to the whole, the
positions of the points G. H and J of the smallest triangle would be
fixed first. From the located positions of G. H and J, the positions of
the points D, E and F would be determined by measuring the distances
DE, EF and FD. Finally, from the located positions of D, E and F, the
positions of the points A, B and Care obtained. The location of the
Points A, B and C fixed by this method is likely to be less accurate than
that when working from the whole to the part. This is due to the fact
that all surveying instruments are subject to some errors, and there is
always some error in plotting and extension of lines A single large
triangle involves least number of measurements and provides better
results compared with those obtained by the expansion of small
triangles involving more number of measurements to a large triangle.
For accurate survey, the distance between the control points of the main
framework should be as large as possible. The control points should
involve the minimum possible number of measurements,
and they should be located with a very high standard of accuracy, The
measurements of a subsidiary framework can be relatively less
accurate.
 2.Always Choose the Method of Survey that is the Most
Suitable for the Purpose
Any desired accuracy can be attained in the field using the modem
methods of surveying. However, the cost of surveying increases rapidly
with an increase in accuracy, because high accuracy requires very
costly precise instruments, more field work and more extensive
computations. Always choose the
method of survey so that the desired accuracy is achieved at a
minimum cost.
if the standard of accuracy achieved is less than the specified, the
results will be useless. On the other hand, if the accuracy attained is
more than the specified, it would lead to wastage of time, money
and effort. In the interest of speed and economy, the surveyor should
work as close to the required
accuracy as possible.
3. Always Make Provisions of Adequate Checks
No measurement is dependable if it has not been properly checked. There
is always a possibility of making errors while taking the measurement,
recording the observations, computing and plotting the results. The
survey should be conducted so that the errors do not pass undetected.
There should be a suitable provision of checks. As far as possible, the
survey work should be self checking.
For illustration, let us consider two points B and C already fixed (Fig.
1.4). The point A can by measuring the distances AB and AC. The
triangle ABC can be plotted even if an error had been made in the
measurement of the distances AB and AC, The existence of such errors
would not be detected in the plotting. However, if an other line AD is also
measured in the field, it would serve as a check. The error would be
revealed if the plotted distance AD on the plan does not correspond to the
measured distance in the field.
In good surveys, the methods of taking observations, recording, and
computations are so designed that the errors are revealed in the process.
All measurements should be checked at the time of recording,
always Record Field Data Carefully
All the measurement s take in the field must be
recorded in a proper field book at the time of
measurement Nothing should be left to memory.
The record must be in a standard form and clearly
written the records may be in the form of tables,
sketches, description or a combination of all the
three.
The field book the original record. It should be kept
in safe custody.
The field record should be accurate, legible, clear,
true and properly arranged.
BASIC MEASUREMENTS IN SURVEYING
The direction of gravity is taken as a reference line for all measurements in surveying.
The direction of gravity can be found by suspending a plumb bob freely.
Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements:
1. Horizontal distances: A horizontal distance is measured in a horizontal plane. If a
distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.
2. Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at
that point.
The vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations (heights)
of the various points.
3. Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is
horizontal at that point.
4. Vertical angle: A vertical angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is
vertical at that point. The vertical plane is the plane that contains the vertical line .
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR DIFFERENT
MEASUREMENTS
The instruments used for different measurements are listed
below:
1. Instruments used for horizontal distances: Chains, tapes,
tachometers, E.D.M. etc.
2. Instruments used for vertical distances: Levelling
instruments, tachometers, etc.
3. Instruments used for horizontal angles: Magnetic
compasses, theodolites, sextants, etc.
4. Instruments used for vertical angles: Theodolites e.t.c.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PLAN AND A MAP
Plan. A plan graphically represents the features on or near the
earth's surface as projected on a horizontal plane. As a plan
represents the area on a horizontal plane, the horizontal distances
are measured between various points on the earth's surface.
Map. If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal
plane is small, the plan is termed map, In addition, a map
generally shows some additional features, such as reliefs ,contour
lines to indicate undulations on the ground.
SCALE OF A MAP
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground. As the areas involved are rather large, it
is essential to select a suitable scale for representing the area on a map.
Selection of the scale depends upon the purpose, size and the required
precision of plotting.
Large scale: 1 cm = 10 m or less than 10 m
Medium scale: 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m
Small scale: 1 cm = 100 m or more than 100 m.
For most of engineering projects, the scale varies from 1 cm 2.5 m to 100 m.
Small scale topographical maps are usually drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 1 km