Intercultural Communication

Learning unit 1

Module manual pp. 21 - 40

Learning Objectives:
 Explain intercultural communication;
 Discuss the importance of intercultural communication;
 Explain different theories related to intercultural
communication;
 Explain and apply the key dimensions of cultural differences;
 Discuss principles and problems related to intercultural
communication;
 Explain and apply barriers to intercultural understanding;
 Discuss the seven principles for building harmonious and
diverse communities
Introduction
 It is often difficult to relate to someone from another culture.
 “They do things differently than me and I don’t like to leave my comfort
zone or do things in another way,” is often a response to dealing with
people from differing backgrounds.
 The biggest fallacy that you can believe in is that we belong to a
distinguishable and finite group that can be separated from the
influences of others.
 Every person is unique, even when they belong to a specific cultural
group, and our cultures are the direct result of responses to our
environment, which include other cultures.
 you will be working with people from different cultures and will have to
know and understand how to negotiate with them in order to reach goals
and objectives successfully and efficiently.
What is culture?
 According to Barker and Angelopulo (2006, p.268) culture
can be described as a pattern of beliefs and values which are
shared by the members of a community.
 The pattern is usually long term, deeply rooted in values and
often extremely difficult to change.
 The concept, values and behaviors that characterize a
culture are normally passed on from one generation to the
next.
 Culture consists of tangible items (example: art, literature,
clothing, music, etc.) and intangible items (example:
customs, laws and morals).
What is Intercultural Communication?
 McPhail (in Tench & Yeomans, 2006, p.125) defines
intercultural communication as “communication between
people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are
distinct enough to alter the communication event.”
 Intercultural communication is the basis of much human

communication and a “vehicle to reconcile people and lay

foundations for future sharing of information, insights, needs
and beliefs” (Casmir, Van Aswegen & Groenewald 1990, p.89,
in Rensburg, 1996, p.143).
 We live in a multicultural society, and the notion of a new or third culture which
becomes a shared culture where people can relate to one another is a meaningful
option for South Africans.
 The ‘third culture’ is created when a new and unique setting is developed. Example:
in South Africa, across cultures, we use the terms “braai”, “shisa nyama”, “bafana”,
etc. We also use terms from other cultures, such as: “Whatsapp me” (technology
culture) or something is “cool” (American culture).

 These words and phrases span cultural boundaries and facilitate mutual
understanding. This gives rise to us belonging to a third, more impartial culture.

 According to Du Plooy-Cilliers and Louw (2008, p.33) it is important to know as

much as possible about our own as well as other cultures.

 Enculturation is the process by which we learn the culture into which we were born;
while acculturation is the process by which we learn the rules and norms of a culture
different from our native culture, and which modifies (or changes) our original or
native culture.
 Enculturation is the process by which we
learn the culture into which we were born;

 Acculturation is the process by which we

learn the rules and norms of a culture
different from our native culture, and which
modifies (or changes) our original or native
2.1 Importance of Intercultural Communication
Hybels and Weaver (2004, pp.68 – 71) provide five solid reasons
for the importance of studying intercultural communication:

 To facilitate understanding your own identity;

 To enhance personal and social interactions;
 To solve misunderstandings, miscommunications, and

mistrust;
 To improve and enrich the quality of civilisation; and
 To become effective citizens of our national communities.
 Cleary (2010, p.28) adds to the discussion by stating that mastering
intercultural communication skills is important for a variety of reasons:
 Because of the pace at which Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) is developing, the world is “shrinking” and we are
much more likely to communicate across cultures now. However,
having access to information does not guarantee understanding,
appreciation or tolerance;

 At the economic level, South Africa trades with nations as wide as China
and North America, all with unique cultures and systems different from
our own. South Africans need to become informed about the cultural
expectations of their trading partners to facilitate communication with
them;
 South Africa is also home to a range of different groups and
societies. Although South Africans share some common
characteristics such as geography and laws, each group has
its own unique cultural characteristics, including language. If
the new South African nation is to grow and develop, it is
important that members of different groups learn to
communicate with each other; and

 On a personal level, career options should increase for those

who are able to master the necessary aspects of intercultural
communication.
2.2 Different Theories Related to Intercultural
Communication
 Theories explain phenomenon – i.e. how and why things happen.
 Theories seek to provide insight into intercultural communication.

The four theories we will be looking at include the:

 Social science approach;

 Interpretive approach;
 Critical approach and
 Dialectical approach.
2.2.1 Social Science Approach

 This approach maintains that behavior can be observed,

measured and predicted.
 It assumes that we can discover universal laws about the way
people behave. Because culture influences communication, the
primary focus is on describing and comparing cultures.
 A cross-cultural study of non-verbal behavior among people
from different countries in Africa (Steinberg, 2007, p.299).
 Another example of the social science approach to culture
could be an investigation as to how Zulu families treat their
elders in comparison with the way Afrikaans families do.
2.2.2 Interpretive Approach

 The interpretive approach uses the subjective experience of

individuals in their cultures and makes use of qualitative,
rather than quantitative research methods, such as field
studies and personal observation, to interpret the world.
 It attempts to understand rather than predict behavior, and

researchers might collect personal narratives and stories from

members of the group.
 “An example is an ethnographic study of speech patterns and

codes in a community to find out who speaks to whom, who

initiates conversations, the degree of formality, the amount of
feedback that is tolerated, etc.” (Steinberg, 2007, p.299).
2.2.3 Critical Approach

 This approach attempts to create change by examining power

relationships within cultures.
 According to this view, power relationships dominate all

intercultural relationships, whether they are social, political,

economic or historical.
 Predicting or understanding behavior is not sufficient.
 The outcome of research must lead to actual change.
 Some critical studies have analyzed how homosexuals are

represented in American movies in comparison with

heterosexuals (Steinberg, 2007, p.299).
2.2.4 Dialectical Approach (discourse as a Point of view)

 Martin et al (2002) developed the dialectical approach to

intercultural communication.
 This approach takes the social science, interpretive and critical
approaches into consideration and insists that these approaches
should be combined to allow for multiple perspectives (Flammia
and Sadri, 2011, p.106).

 In this regard, Martin et al. (2002) identified six dialectic

characteristics which all related to the building blocks of
intercultural communication (culture, communication, context and
power).
The dialectics are explained by Flammia and Sadri (2011, pp.
106- 107) as follows:

 cultural-individual;
 personal-contextual;
 differences-similarities;
 static-dynamic;
 history/past-present/future;
 privilege-disadvantage
Cultural-individual.
 This dialectic refers to the fact that communication is both cultural and individual.
 All people share some communication patterns with members of groups to which

they belong. At the same time, all people also have unique individual
communication patterns that are idiosyncratic (distinctive)

Personal-contextual.
 This dialectic has to do with the relationship between the social roles that we play

and how they interact with our communication patterns on the personal level.

Social contexts- often shape the behaviors of individuals.

 Roles related to our social position and our professional standing may influence our

communication behavior.
 Some social roles require that we behave in a very formal manner.
 The way a lawyer in a courtroom or a scientist in a laboratory communicates will be

a result of the context in which he/she is operating.

 Differences-similarities.
 This dialectic recognizes the fact that people are

simultaneously both similar to and different from one another

in many ways.
 These similarities and differences exist both within and across

cultures.
 There are real differences between the ways members of

various cultures communicate; members of Arab cultures

communicate…differently than members of Asian cultures.
However, when we focus on differences among cultures we
run the risk of stereotyping others.
 Static-dynamic (changes).
 Some cultural and communication patterns are relatively stable, while
at the same time, cultures are evolving and changing.
 While cultures are influenced by the development of new
technologies, they will adapt these technologies to their cultural
patterns and values.

 For example, a study by Lee (2000) found that email use in Korea was
influenced by the Confucian dynamism cultural value dimension
which emphasizes respect for elders and a strict adherence to social
order. Most employees working in a virtual office environment in Korea
did not use email to communicate with their superiors, because they
felt it did not convey the appropriate level of respect to one’s boss
(Lee, 2000).

 History/past-present/future.
 This dialectic refers to the need to be aware of both

present conditions and historical influences as they affect

intercultural communication.
 For example…,read
 we must also have an understanding of how North African

Muslim communities have developed in Europe and the

factors that have shaped the interactions among these groups
and their host countries
 Privilege-disadvantage.
 Individuals may have power because of their social, economic or
political status, and may be privileged because of their position,
 just as others may be disadvantaged because of their lack of
social, economic or political power.
 However, an individual may have a privileged status in some
contexts, but may also be disadvantaged in others.
 In some situations, an individual may simultaneously be privileged
and disadvantaged.
 E.g….An international student in England may be privileged and
disadvantaged at the same time. He/she may be privileged to have
the opportunity to study abroad, but he/she may be simultaneously
disadvantaged if he/she faces prejudice within the UK.
 Seven Key Dimensions of Cultural Difference
When observing communities, there are several ways in which cultures differ;
1. Worldview – Values and beliefs create a worldview that may conflict with
our own (Steinberg, 2007, p.300). It describes how we, as different
cultures, view the world in different ways. For example, extremely religious
cultures, would view creation differently than more scientific cultures.

2. Social norms and role expectations – Steinberg (2007, p.300) states that
cultures differ based on role expectations and the role a person is
expected to fulfil within their culture. For example, in some cultures it is
not seen as proper practice for a woman to have both a family and a job,
while in others this is the norm.
3. Individualism-Collectivism – This refers to the degree of integration
and orientation of individuals within groups.
 Where individualism emphasises individual freedom and independence
from others;
 a collective society will have people attached to tight groups like family
and community (Tench & Yeomans, 2006, p.126 – 127).

 For example, in Indian cultures it is common practice for members of a

family to live together: grandmothers, nephews, distant cousins, etc.
These are more collectivist cultures, where the group is more
important than individual goals. Other cultures encourage members to
“find their own way in the world” (such as in the English culture where
the individual is responsible for their own actions and successes).
These are more individualist cultures.
 High- and Low-Context Cultures –

 High-context cultures are more skilled in reading non-verbal

behaviours and they assume that other people will also be
able to do so. So they speak less and listen more.

 Low-context cultures emphasise direct and explicit

communication. They accentuate verbal messages (Tench &
Yeomans, 2006, pp.126 – 127). Example, high context will be
able to grasp sarcasm and nuance, while low context cultures
want you to “say what you mean”.

 Power Distance – This is the extent to which inequality and/
or unequal distribution of power is tolerated in society (Tench
& Yeomans, 2006, pp.126 – 127). In other words it is "the
degree to which people accept authority and hierarchical
organisation as a natural part of their culture" (Tubbs & Moss,
2008, p.321).
 High- and Low Uncertainty-Avoidance – This refers to tolerance for
the unknown. High uncertainty avoidance cultures strive to avoid
ambiguity, fear, risk and uncertainty by establishing formal rules and
seeking consensus. For low uncertainty avoidance cultures, risk and
uncertainty are part of life (Tench & Yeomans, 2006, pp.126-127).
Tubbs and Moss (2008, p.322) give examples of this by explaining
that in cultures that are high in uncertainty avoidance, people are
more comfortable in situations where there is little ambiguity and also
a lot of information. These types of cultures prefer more rules and
behaviour; it can be predicted that there is less tolerance of diversity.
On the other hand, cultures that rank low with uncertainty avoidance
are more open to change and diversity. Low uncertainty avoiding
cultures embrace change and welcome new ways of doing things.
 Masculinity-Femininity – Masculinity is the degree to which
dominant values are (traditional) male-oriented. Masculine
cultures value power and dominance; while cultures that are
more feminine favour caring and nurturing behaviours (Tench
& Yeomans, 2006, pp.126-127).
Principles and Problems Related to Intercultural
Communication
Tubbs and Moss (2006, p.321) maintain the following:
 Firstly, in order for different cultures to understand one

another, there should be a shared code system (verbal and

non-verbal) – i.e. members of different cultures need to
understand one another’s languages, behaviours, customs,
etc.
 Secondly, different beliefs and behaviours between
communicators establish the basis for different assumptions
from which to respond
 i.e. two people from different cultures can easily attribute

different meanings to the same behaviour.

 If this happens, the two people behave differently with neither

being able to predict the other’s response.

 Example: monochromic approach to time (i.e. time is

important; if you are late for an appointment, you are wasting

time
 Polychromic: approach to time (i.e. time is more flexible).
 Thirdly, accepting the beliefs and behaviours of others is often
a problem when communicating across cultures.
 We are often guilty of our low tolerance of others’ beliefs and

quick to dismiss behaviour we do not know or accept

 Barriers to Intercultural Understanding
 Just as we cannot master another language by just memorising its
vocabulary and grammatical structures, we cannot learn a culture by
memorising a list of symbols, norms and values.
 The more diverse two cultures are, the wider the division between their

people and the less they can come to really understand one another.
 Hybels and Weaver (2004, p.78) argue that barriers occur because of

socialisation, established habits, and as part of the human condition.

 Some people simply do not know about other cultures, and some

people do not want to know.

 So both ignorance and naiveté can be important barriers to

intercultural communication.
Barries
 Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a belief or assumption that the culture we belong to is
superior. Tubbs and Moss (2008, p.333) contribute to this definition by stating
that “ethnocentrism is a tendency to judge the values, customs, behaviours or
other aspects of another culture in terms of those that our own cultural group
regards as desirable or ideal”.
 Stereotyping

A stereotype is an overview about a class of people, objects or events that is

widely held by a given culture (Tubbs & Moss, 2006, p.57). The problem with
stereotypes is that they are based on generalisations about limited experiences
(Tubbs & Moss, 2008, p.339). Stereotyping is to categorise individuals or
groups according to an oversimplified, standardised image or idea and is
culturally learne
 Generalisation
A generalisation is a judgement about an individual or group, based on experience. Example: if you
bump into a French citizen and they are rude, you may consider all the French to be abrasive. The
problem with generalising is that it makes subjective assumption based on limited exposure about
the members from a different culture, thereby causing a barrier to effective communication.

 Group Polarisation
 The internet with its tremendous promise for sustaining and even creating relationships between

people of many cultures and co-cultures is a source of cultural information.

 Yet, it can also be a source of misinformation and negative stereotyping such as negative sites or

hate sites.
 They foster false information about groups of people.
 "The pattern is part of a phenomenon called group polarisation – that is, after deliberation

people are more likely to move toward a more extreme point in the direction to which the group’s
members were originally inclined" (Tubbs & Moss, 2008, pp.349 – 341).
 Group polarisation causes the difference between groups to be ever more clear-cut and extreme,

hardening the opposition between them. If you have ever visited the comments section of an
online newspaper like Times Live you will easily identify the various polarities that exist in this
country when you read about
Building Harmonious and Diverse Communities

 Gudykunst and Kim (in Tubbs & Moss, 2008, p.346) suggest seven
principles for building harmonious, diverse communities. These
include:
 Be committed – “We must be committed to the principle of building
community in our lives, as well as to the individuals with whom we
are trying to develop community.”
 Be mindful – “Think about what we do and say. Focus on the process,
not the outcome.”
 Be unconditionally accepting – “Accept others as they are; do not try
to change or control them. Value diversity and do not judge others
based only on their diversity.”
 Be concerned for both ourselves and others – “Avoid polarised
communication and engage in dialogue whenever possible.
Consult others on issues that affect them and be open to their
ideas.”
 Be understanding – “Recognise how culture and ethnicity affect
the way we think and behave. Search for commonalities…
Balance emotions, anxiety and fear with reason.”
 Be ethical – “Engage in behaviour that is not a means to an end
but behaviour that is morally right in and of itself.”
 Be peaceful – “Do not be violent or deceitful, breach valid
promises, or be secretive. Strive for harmony.”