HYDROGRAPH, STREAM

GAUGING AND PEAK FLOOD

ESTIMATION
UNIT 2
 HYDROGRAPH
• A graphical plot of discharge of a particular stream verses time. In that,
discharge is plotted on Y-axis and the corresponding time is plotted on X-axis.
The discharge means runoff includes surface runoff, subsurface runoff and base
flow.
• The hydrograph can be regarded as an integral expression of physiographic and
climatic characteristics which governs relation between rainfall and runoff.
• Hence a basin can not produce same hydrograph when precipitation is same or
basin area is same.
• It is generated from runoff due to precipitation resulting from either isolated
storm or a series of convective storms.
• If hydrograph generated from a series of convective storms (known as complex
storm) is known as complex hydrograph or storm hydrograph.
• USE
 Design of sewerage
 Estimation of Peak flood.
 Design of Dam
 Development of flood forecasting and warning system.
 To calculate the maximum flood for designing of spillway.
 COMPONENT OF HYDROGRAPH
• At the beginning there is only base flow, i.e. groundwater contribute to the
stream.
• Also, when the rainfall occurs there are initial losses and high infiltration
losses which reduces runoff. Hence curve goes drawdown, after that runoff
increases.
• COMPONENTS
• Rising Limb (AB)
 Rising limb ‘AB’ is the ascending portion of the hydrograph corresponding the
increase of discharge in stream.
 It is also known as concentration curve.
 After starting of storm, meeting to losses, the surface flow begins and there is
progressive increase in stream the flow.
 But increase in flow initially is slow; after meeting the losses and collection of
all runoff in stream, more and more discharge at the outlet is measured.
 The shape of rising limb is controlled by the characteristics of basin and
duration, intensity and uniformity of storm.
• Peak or Crest Segment (BPC)
 The peak or crest segment includes the part of hydrograph from the inflection
point (B) on the rising limb to an inflection point (C) on the recession limb.
 It indicates the peak flow rate.
 This occurs when the arrival of flow at the outlet from all parts of basin.
 The peak may be sharp or flat depending upon the rainfall and catchment
characteristics.
 For large catchment the peak flow occurs after the ceasing of rainfall.
 Point of inflection represents the change point of contribution of catchment to
the drainage system.
 In the graph, point ‘C’ is denoted as point of inflection, because it marks the
time when direct runoff from the overland flow into the stream outlet ceases.
• Recession Limb (CD)
 The recession limb ‘CD’ is descending portion of hydrograph corresponding
decrease of discharge in stream upto natural ground water flow.
 It indicates the storage contribution from surface storage, subsurface flow and
base flow.
 It takes place after ceasing of rainfall, hence, it depends on only on the basin
characteristics.
• The area under curve ABPCD would give the volume of total runoff during the
flood.
• TIME PARAMETERS
• Effective Time Duration (te)
 It is the time of excess rainfall.
• Basin Lag or Lag time ( tl) and Peak Time (tp)
 The time interval between the center of mass of excess rainfall and center of
mass of runoff hydrograph or Peak of the hydrograph.
 Time interval between start of rising limb to peak of hydrograph.
• Time of Concentration (tc)
 It is defined by two ways –
 Based on rainfall and runoff hydrograph characteristics, it is the time from the
end of net rainfall (rainfall excess) to point of inflection (C) of the falling limb
of hydrograph.
 Based on physical characteristics of watershed, it is the travel time of a water
particle from the hydraulically most remote point in the basin to the outflow
location.
• Recession Time (Tr)
 It is the time interval between the end of rainfall excess and lowest point of
recession limb (D).
 It is the duration of direct runoff after rainfall excess stops.
• Base Time (Tb)
 It is the time interval between starting point (A) of hydrograph to end point (D)
of hydrograph.
 It is the time from which direct runoff start to time when it stops.
• NEGATIVE BASE FLOW
 When water level before the storm is low in the stream, there is flow from
ground water to the stream.
 But, as water level rises in stream due
to storm, there is flow from the stream
to ground water. It is known as
negative base flow.
 As flood reduces, the ground water
again starts contributing to the stream.
 SEPARATION OF BASE FLOW
• As knowing the total runoff comprises direct runoff and base flow.
• For derivation of a unit hydrograph, it is necessary to separate the base flow
from total runoff.
• There are three popular methods of separation of base flow and direct runoff in
a single peaked storm hydrograph.
• STRAIGHT LINE METHOD
 The starting point of rising limb ‘A’ and end point of recession limb ‘D’ (i.e.
beginning and end of direct runoff) joined by straight line ‘AD’.
 The portion of hydrograph below the straight line is considers as base flow.
 It is very simple method of separation of base flow, but shows approximate
value.
• TWO LINE MEHOD
 This is most widely used method in which the base flow is separated from
direct runoff by two lines.
 The first line ‘AE’ is obtained by extending the base flow curve, existing prior
to the commencement of surface runoff, till it intersects a vertical line drawn
from peak ‘P’ in a point ‘E’.
 From point ‘E’, a straight line ‘ED’ is drawn to meet the hydrograph at point
‘D’, where ‘D’ is a point on the hydrograph ‘N’ days after the peak of the
hydrograph.
 The value of ‘N’ in days is approximately given by-
N = 0.826 A0.2
Where, A = area of drainage basin in Sq.km.
 The portion below AED represents the base flow.
• CURVE EXTENTION METHOD
 This method consisting of extending the base flow curve on recession side
backwards till it intersects a vertical line through the point of inflection ‘C’ in
point ‘F’. Thus ‘DF’ curve extending backwards.
 Point ‘A’ and ‘F’ then joined by arbitrary smooth curve or tangent line.
 Thus portion below segment AFD’ is indicate base flow.
 This method preferred when stream and ground water table are hydraulically
connected and flow from ground water storage reaches the storm quickly.
• The hydrograph obtained after the separation of base flow shows direct runoff
hence, it is called as direct runoff hydrograph.
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH (UH)
• A unit hydrograph is defined as hydrograph of direct surface runoff resulting
from 1 cm of effective rainfall occurring uniformly over the drainage basin or
catchment in space as well as in time for specified duration.
• The effective rainfall is also called as rainfall excess.
• The specified duration is that period within which the effective rainfall is
considered to be uniformly distributed.
• A unit hydrograph is designed according to duration. e.g. If unit hydrograph
results from a rainfall of 2 hour duration it is known as 2 hour unit hydrograph.
• Means hydrograph produced by surface runoff from storm lasting for 2 hour
and yielding a rainfall excess of 1cm.
• Since, the rainfall excess is nothing but surface runoff, the volume of water
contained in unit hydrograph shall be equal to 1cm depth over the basin area.
• This concept is first given by L. K. Sherman in 1932. it is based on assumption
that –
• If two identical storms occurs over a drainage basin with identical condition
prior to the rain, the hydrograph of runoff from the two storms would be
expected to be he same.
• ASSUMPTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY
1. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed within its duration.
2. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire area of drainage
basin.
3. The base period of hydrographs of direct runoff due to effective rainfall of unit
duration of different intensities is constant.
4. The ordinates of all the direct runoff hydrographs of a common base period are
directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff represented by each
hydrograph.
5. For given drainage basin, the hydrograph of direct runoff corresponding to a
given period of rainfall reflects all the physical properties of basin.
• LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 The UH theory can’t be applied catchment area greater than 5000 km2.
 The UH can’t be applied to very small catchments with area less than 2km2.
 This theory can’t be applied when the major portion of the storm is in the form
of snow.
 This theory is not very accurate. The accuracy obtained is ± 10%.
• DERIVATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 This method is used for the estimation of the maximum flood discharge of a
stream as well as developing a flood hydrograph.
 In order to derive the unit hydrograph the following steps are adopted-
1. From the past records, select some unit period of intense rainfall duration
corresponding to an isolated storm uniformly distributed over the area.
2. From past records of river discharge, storm hydrograph for some days before
and after the period of rainfall of unit duration is develop.
3. Separate the base flow from the total runoff represented by the hydrograph in
order to obtain the direct runoff , for that any method out of three is used.
4. Calculate direct runoff depth by expression-

Where,
∑O = sum of the discharge ordinates (direct runoff) in cumecs
t = time interval between successive ordinates in hour
A = area of drainage basin or catchment in Sq. km.
5. Calculate the ordinates of unit hydrograph by dividing each of ordinates of
direct runoff by the depth of direct runoff.
6. By plotting these ordinates at their respective times drawing a smooth curve
passing through these, unit hydrograph is obtained.

• APPLICATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH

• For Deriving A Flood Hydrograph (FH) Resulting from Rainfall of Unit
Duration
 By applying the principle of linearity the flood hydrograph may be obtained
as follows-
1. Deduct infiltration losses from the rainfall intensity to obtain the intensity of
effective rainfall.
2. Obtain the ordinates of the direct runoff hydrograph (DRO) by multiplying the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph by the intensity of effective rainfall.
3. Add the corresponding base flow ordinates to direct runoff ordinates to obtain
the ordinates of flood hydrograph which may be plotted.
• For Construction of Flood Hydrograph (FH) resulting from series of
Rainfalls Each of Same Duration
 A unit hydrograph of some specific unit duration can also be utilize for
construction of flood hydrograph resulting from the rainfall lasting for long
duration.
 The essential condition is that the storm pattern should be same as that for the
unit hydrograph.
1. If 3 hours unit hydrograph is available and it is required to compute the flood
hydrograph resulting from a rainfall lasting for 9 hours with different
intensities.
2. Divide this rainfall duration (storm duration) as same as the duration of unit
hydrograph with corresponding intensities. i.e. p1 intensity for 1st 3 hour, p2
intensity for 2nd 3 hour and p3 intensity for last 3 hour.
3. Flood hydrograph of each 3 hour part is computed separately and added. But
for that, the hydrograph for 2nd part of storm start after 3 hours of 1st part
begins. Similarly, the hydrograph of 3rd part of storm starts after 6 hours of first
part begins.
 NUMERICAL

Solution
Problem 2: Given below ordinates of unit hydrograph for storm of 4 hr duration.
Determine ordinates of flood hydrograph when max. flood observed was
4000m3/s and constant base flow was 250 m3/s. The drainage area of the basin
is 1500km2.
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Runoff (m3/s) 0 1500 1200 600 220 80 0

Solution Depth of Direct runoff = 4000/1500 = 2.67 cm

(1) (2) (3) = (2)*2.67 (4) (5) = (3)+ (4)

Time (hr) Ordinates of 4 hr Ordinates of DRO Base flow in m3/s Ordinates of Flood
UH in m3/s Hydrograph in m3/s hydrograph in m3/s
0 0 0 250 250
4 1500 4005 250 4255
8 1200 3204 250 3454
12 600 1602 250 1852
16 220 587.4 250 834.4
20 80 234.96 250 484.96
24 0 0 250 250
 S – CURVE HYDROGRAPH
• S-CURVE HYDROGRAPH is a hydrograph that would produced from
successive storms of which producing effective rainfall of 1 cm in unit
duration.
• S-Curve hydrograph may be derived by summing up the ordinates of a series
of unit hydrographs of same unit duration spaced at interval of the unit
duration.
• Hence, it is also known as summation hydrograph or summation curve.
• The S-Curve hydrograph is continuously rising curve, which ultimately attains
constant value, when equilibrium discharge is reached, after the entire
catchment starts contributing to runoff.
• When a unit hydrograph of a desired unit duration is neither available nor
developed by analysis of the rainfall – runoff data, the unit hydrograph of
desired unit duration is developed by a unit hydrograph of known unit duration
after conversion in S-Curve hydrograph.
• But, there is two conditions need to taken into consideration as-
1. When unknown hydrograph duration is integral part of known hydrograph
duration
2. When unknown hydrograph duration is not integral part and also shorter or
longer duration than known hydrograph duration.
• When Unknown Hydrograph Duration is Integral Part of Known
Hydrograph Duration
 In this case, computations are relative easy.
 Say for example a known unit hydrograph of say 3 hour duration can be easily
used to compute the unit hydrograph of 6 hour duration
 Superimpose the known 3 hour unit hydrograph over the 3 hour unit
hydrograph plotted with lag time of 3 hour, and added.
 And then after addition, divide each ordinate by 2.
• When Unknown Hydrograph Duration is not Integral Part and Also
Shorter or Longer Duration Than Known Hydrograph Duration
 In this case, computations are complex.
 In such situation a S-Curve hydrograph is constructed based on the principle of
superposition and then compute the hydrograph of desired duration.
 Also with this, there is need to find out constant discharge value and when it
attends.
 If the base time of unit hydrograph is ‘T’ hours and the unit duration is ‘tr’
hours, then it is observed that the discharge becomes constant at a time equals
to the base time of unit hydrograph minus the unit duration (T - tr) hours.
 Since, 1 cm of effective rainfall occurs every ‘tr’ hours on the drainage basin
the corresponding intensity of rainfall is (1/ tr) cm/hours, and constant
discharge developed is-

or
Where, A = Area in Sq. km. Where, A = Area in Ha.
 NUMERICAL

Solution
Problem : The ordinates of 4 hr UH of a basin having area 518 Sq. Km. are given
below. Determine ordinates of 5 hr UH .
Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Ordinates (m3/s) 0 30 110 150 170 140 90 40 0

Solution
First find, Value of Constant Discharge and starting time of constant discharge
Value of constant discharge,

Starting time of constant discharge,

T – tr = 16 – 4 = 12 hr.

Now, Find ordinates of S-Curve Hydrograph

S-Curve Hydrograph
Time (hr) Ordinates of 4 Ordinates of successive 4 hr unit Ordinates of S-Curve
hr UH (m3/s) hydrographs each lagging 4 hr duration hydrograph (m3/s)
(m3/hr)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) = (2)+(3)+ (4)+(5)
0 0 - - - 0
2 30 - - - 30
4 100 0 - - 100
6 150 30 - - 180
8 170 100 0 - 270
10 140 150 30 - 320
12 90 170 100 0 360
14 40 140 150 30 360
16 0 90 170 100 360

Now, Find ordinates of 5 hr UH

S-Curve Hydrograph Alternate method
Time (hr) Ordinates of 4 hr UH Offset co- Ordinates of S-Curve hydrograph
(m3/s) ordinate (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0 0
2 30
4 100
6 150
8 170
10 140
12 90
14 40
16 0
Now, Find ordinates of 5 hr UH
5hr Unit Hydrograph

Time (hr) Ordinates of S-Curve Ordinates of lagged Δy Ordinates of 5 hr UH

hydrograph (m3/s) S-Curve (m3/s)
hydrograph(m3/hr)
(1) (2) (3) (4) = (2)-(3) (5) = (4) * (4hr/5hr)
0 0 - 0 0
2 30 0 30 24
4 100 30 70 56
6 180 100 80 64
8 270 180 90 80
10 320 270 50 40
12 360 320 40 32
14 360 360 0 0
16 360 360 0 0
Problem-15: The design storm of A water shed has the depth of rainfall of 4.9 and
3.9 cm for the consecutive 1 hr periods. The 1-hr UHO can be approximated by A
triangle of base 6 H with A peak of 50 cumec occurring after 2-hr from the
beginning. Compute the flood hydrograph assuming an average loss rate of 9
mm/H and constant base flow of 10 cumec. What is the area of water shed and its
coefficient of runoff.
Solution:
Time UHO DRO due to Total B.F. FHO
rainfall
(h) excess, cumec
4.9-0.9 3.9 -0.9
=4 cm =3 cm

0 0 0 0 10 10
1 25 100 0 100 10 110
2 50 200 75 275 10 285
3 37.5 150 150 300 10 310 PEAK
4 25 100 112.5 212.5 10 222.5 FLOOD
5 12.5 50 75 125 10 135
6 0 0 37.5 37.5 10 47.5
7 0 0 10 10
 STREAM GAUGING
• Stream flow is the largest operation among the various
hydrologic networks. The necessity for stream gauging arises
because of many reasons; streams provide water for men and
animals, irrigation water for plants, for dilution and transport to
removal of waste, and for production of power. Records of
stream flow are important in each of these uses.
• Water in streams can also be a hazardous. Floods cause
extensive damages and hardships. Records of flood events
obtained at gauging stations serve as the basis for the design of
bridges, culverts, spillways, reservoirs, etc
• The process by which a discharge of stream channel is
measured is known as stream gauging.
RIVER STAGE
 River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the
elevation of the water surface at a specified station above
some arbitrary datum.
 The zero elevation is some times taken as mean sea level
but more often it is set slightly below the point of zero in
the stream.
 The river stage is denoted by “g”. Fig 1 shows definition
sketch.

Continued….
RIVER STAGE

Fig. 1
 CHANNEL CONTROL
 This is another term often used in stream gauging. It is the reach of a
channel or a channel section where there is a unique relationship
between stage and discharge.
 There are two types of channel control.

 It may be an artificial or natural one.

Artificial Control
 It is an amended section or length of stream for measurement
purposes. Examples are weir, flumes etc.
 The design of an artificial control should be based on the following
considerations.
 The profile of crest should be such that a small change in discharge
indicates appreciable change in stage.
 The structure should not create undesirable disturbance in the
channel above or below the control.
 The control should have structural stability and should be
permanent.
SELECTION OF A GAUGING SITE
 The conditions regarding depth of water are depending upon the
physical features of the stream on the downstream side.
 The relation between stage and discharge is controlled by the physical
features of the channel downstream from the gauge site.
 Essential requirements for stream gauging are:
 Permanence of control
 Opportunity to install an artificial control
 Possibility of no backwater effect from downstream tributaries or
other sources.
 Availability of a good metering station where good discharge
measurement can be made.
 Availability of a site for proper placement of stage gauge to
record all fluctuations of water level and
 Gauge site free from debris and floating matter with respect to the
control and the metering section.
Continued….
SELECTION OF A GAUGING SITE

 Suitability of existing structures for use in making flood discharge

measurements, or the availability of a site for the proper placement
of a cable way for this purpose.
 There is no possibility of flow bye-passing the site in ground water
or in flood channels.
 Availability of power line or telephone lines, where needed for
special instrumentation.
 Accessibility of the site by roads, particularly during floods.
 Economic construction is possible.
MEASUREMENT OF RIVER STAGE
 The river stage is measured by two types of gauges.
 Non-recording gauges:

The non-recording gauges are of three types

1. Staff gauge
2. Float type gauge

 Recording gauges:

Continued….
NON RECORDING GAUGES
 Staff Gauge
The staff gauges are further of the following types.
1. Vertical Staff Gauge
2. Sectional Staff Gauge
3. Inclined Staff Gauge
Vertical Staff Gauge
 The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff
gauge. A portion of the vertical staff gauge is immersed in the
water at all times.
 The gauge may consist of a single vertical scale attached to a
bridge pier, or other structure that extends into the low water
channel of the stream. Figure 1 shows a typical vertical staff
gauge.

Continued….
NON RECORDING GAUGES

Fig. 1: Vertical Staff Gauge Continued….

NON RECORDING GAUGES
Sectional Staff Gauge:
 If no suitable structure
exists in a location, which
is accessible at all stages,
a sectional staff gauge
(fig. 2) may be used.
 Short sections of staff are
mounted on available
structures or on specially
constructed supports in
such a way that one
section is always
accessible.
Fig. 2: Sectional Staff Gauge

Continued….
NON RECORDING GAUGES
Inclined Staff Gauge
 An alternative to the
sectional staff gauge is an
inclined staff gauge (Fig.3)
 Inclined staff gauge is
placed on the slope of the
stream bank and graduated
so that the scale reads
directly in the vertical depth.
 The inclined staff gauges are
considered better than the
sectional staff gauges due to
better accuracy.

Fig. 3: Inclined Staff Gauge

Continued….
NON RECORDING GAUGES
Float Type Gauge

Fig. 4: Float Type Gauge

Continued….
RECORDING GAUGES
• These are similar to the non-recording gauges but have some
arrangement to give a continuous record. In recording gauges
motion of a float for example is recorded on a chart, and in a
continuous recorder, the motion of the float moves a pen across
a long strip chart.
• The chart is usually 25 cm wide and at a scale of 1:12. When the
pen reaches the edge of the chart it is reverse the direction and
records the next readings in the other directions across the chart.

• The chart roll contains enough paper to operate for a year at a

scale of 6 cm/day.

Continued….
CREST STAFF GAUGE

Fig. 5
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
 Stream discharge represents the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle.
Stream discharge can be measured more accurately than other
components of hydrologic cycle such as precipitation, evaporation,
infiltration etc.
 In this section methods of measurement of discharge are described.
Methods for determining discharge can be classified as.
 Velocity area method (free flow method).
 Slope area Method
 Measurement by permanent structures.
 Chemical gauging method

Continued….
FREE FLOW METHOD (VELOCITY AREA
METHOD)
 In this method certain instruments are used to observe, the
velocity in the stream, and the discharge is calculated from the
data thus obtained. In this method the regime of the channel is
not affected. i.e. for example depth remains unaffected when
instrument is inserted in stream
 Also free flow method can be employed at any suitable section.

The basic principle that Q =AV is used in this method.

Where
Q = Discharge
A = Area of cross-section of flow and
V = mean flow velocity.

Continued….
FREE FLOW METHOD (VELOCITY AREA
METHOD)
 This needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the
cross-sectional area of flow. The channel is divided in to sub-
sections, the mean velocity and the area of flow is measured at
each sub-section and finally the total discharge is the sum of
the discharges through these sub-sections.
Q=q1+q2+q3+………………..+ qn - - - 1
Where Q is total discharge and qi is discharge through a sub-
section ‘i’ of stream.
 Finding the mean velocity

The velocity in the free flow method is found by

 Current meter
 Pitot tube
 Floats
CURRENT METER
 A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of
water in open channels or streams. One of the most commonly
used current meter is the Price Meter.
 This type of current meter is used by U.S. geological survey. It
consists of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis.
 Electric contacts driven by the cups close a circuit through a
battery and a wire of supporting cable, causes a click in
headphones worn by the operator for each 5 or 10 revolutions
of cups.
 For shallow depths wadding (depth measurement by rods) is
done and for measurements in deep water the meter is
suspended from a cable.
 The meter reader is either in a boat or on a bridge. There is a
heavy weight suspended at the bottom of this cable to keep the
whole family vertical.
Continued….
CURRENT METER
 The velocity of water is given as
V = a + bN - - - - - - - - - - 2
Where N is the number of revolutions per second of cups and
a , b are the coefficients for a given current meter
 Following steps are adopted to take measurements by the
current meter.
 Measuring depth of flow (sounding)
 Taking reading for “N”, the revolutions per second.

Continued….
Fig. 5. Price Current Meter
CURRENT METER
• Measuring depth of flow (sounding)
– The depth is measured by a rigid rod called wading rod or by a
sounding -weight suspended from a cable. The cable is controlled
either by a reel fixed on a pulley or by hand line of a bridge.
– The wadding rod is placed in the stream so that the base plate
rests on the stream bed and the depth of water is read on the
graduated main rod.
 A sounding weight (Coulomb’s Weight) is suspended below the
current meter to keep it stationary in the water.
 The weights offer minimum resistance to flowing water and have
sufficient weight not to be taken away by the water.
 Reading is taken when the weights just touch the water surface.
These are further lowered till these touch the base of the channel.
The reading of reel is taken again. The difference of these
readings gives the depth of flow.

Continued….
CURRENT METER
 Methods of Measuring Average Velocity:-
 There are four alternatives for current meter readings.
 Single point Method

 Two point Method

 Multiple Point Method

 Direct Integration Method

 To decide which method should be used, the governing factors

are
 How much accuracy is required

 The time available

 The behavior of stream

Continued….
CURRENT METER
 Methods of Measuring Average Velocity
 Single Point Method:
 The current meter is placed at 0.6 of depth to find mean velocity. This is
least time consuming method. This is done when the depth of flow is
less than 1 m.
 The average velocity is denoted as V=V
0.6d, Where V0.6d represents
velocity at 0.6 of depth.
 Two point Method:
 The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at 0.2
of depth and then at 0.8 of the depth. This is more accurate than one
point method.
 The average velocity is mean of the velocity at 0.2 depth and that at 0.8

depth. V= (V0.2d +V0.8d)/2

 Multiple Point Method:
 In this method current meter is placed at different points. Velocity at
each point is measured and then mean of these velocities is taken.
 This method is although accurate but is very time consuming.

Continued….
CURRENT METER
 Direct Integration Method:
 This method is same as that of No. (3). In this method it is essential that the
worker should be an experienced person.
 The current meter is lowered from the surface to the bed of stream with the
uniform rate and from bed of channel to the surface with the same rate.
 The number of revolutions made by the propeller is recorded and the
dividing by time consumed in this operation gives the mean velocity directly.
 The behavior of flow in channel is also an important factor. i.e. in
case of unsteady flow where the discharge is changing during the
measurements as that in floods etc, we have to use the quickest
method.
 Methods of Holding Current Meter
 Measurement By Wadding Rods
 Measurement From Bridge:
 Measurements from a Cable-Way:
 Measurement From Boat:
PITOT TUBE
 A pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to
calculate discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams.
 However the use of pitot tube may not be recommended for rivers due
to following reason.
1. Supporting the pitot tube is very difficult when the channel is very
wide and deep.
2. The head generated by a pitot tube in open channel is generally very
small due to very low velocities, and therefore discharge can not be
accurately measured.
 The use of pitot tube may however be recommended for estimating
discharge in laboratory flumes and small channels.
 The formula for calculating velocity is
V=(√2gh) - - - - - - - - - 3
Where h is water height in tube above surface of water. It is the velocity
head. Fig 6 shows method of velocity measurement by a pitot tube.

Continued….
PITOT TUBE
FLOATS
 This method consists of putting a float in the channel and noting
the time and distance covered by the float.
 The velocity will be equal to the distance traveled in a unit time.
i.e.
V=S/t - - - - - 4
Where S is distance covered by float in time t.
 A straight reach of the channel is to be selected where the depth
is nearly uniform.

Methods to Measures Average Velocity

Following alternatives can be used to find average velocity
 Type-1 floats:
The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance and
time is noted as mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is
determined which is the velocity at the surface of water. The
mean velocity then is about 0.85 of surface velocity.
Continued….
FLOATS
 Type-2 floats:
Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept above
water surface, the string length is so adjusted so that the weight
is at a depth of 0.60 of total depth. This directly gives the mean
velocity.
 Type-3 floats:

A hollow box is provided at top. Canvas skirts are connected

with stiffening rings. The mean velocity is found by the
formula.
Vm = Vo (1.012 - 0.116 d/d1) - - - - - - - 5
Where, Vm = Mean velocity, Vo = Observed velocity,
d =Total depth
d1= Clearance of lower edge of float from the bed of channel

Continued….
PROCESSING FIELD DATA &
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
 Mid-Section Method of Estimating Discharge
 The following data is required for estimation of discharge by mid-
section method:
 Location of sampling points 1, 2, 3,...., n across the stream in

reference to the distance from an initial point on one of the

banks. Say b1, b2, b3,.........,bn are the distances from the initial
point to the observation points 1, 2, 3,...., n
 Stream depth d, at each observation point. Say d , d ,
1 2
d3,.........,dn represent depths of water at observation point to
the observation points 1, 2, 3,...., n
 Mean stream velocity perpendicular to the cross-section at

each observation point.1, 2, 3,......, n (observation points)

Continued….
PROCESSING FIELD DATA &
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE

VV0.2D
0.2D

V0.8D
V0.8D

Continued….
 PROCESSING FIELD DATA & CALCULATION
OF DISCHARGE
 With the above information being known, the partial discharge can be computed
for any partial section at location ‘i’ as
qi= di Vi [( bi -1) +(b i+1 )]/2
Where, q i = discharge through partial section i
Vi = Mean velocity at location “i”
bi = distance from initial point to location “i”
bi-1= distance from initial point to location i-1 .
bi+1= distance from initial point to location i+1.
di = depth of water at location “i”.
 The discharge at first section 1 and last section n are calculated separately as
follows q1= d1 V1 ( b1 +b 2 )/2 - - - - - - - 6
qn= dn Vn [ bn +(b n+1)]/2 - - - - - 7
 The total discharge
Q = q1+ q2+ q3+………+ qn - - - - 8
Continued….
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
 The essential requirements for good discharge measurement
are;
 Keep the current meter clean and properly oiled to reduce
the friction losses.
 The stream cross-section should be sub-divided into as
small sub-sectors as possible (15-20 sub-sections). If this
requirement causes verticals to be less than 0.15 m. then
increase the spacing accordingly.
 Use the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth
when the depth is greater than 0.60 m otherwise take a
single measurement at 0.6 times the depth.

Continued….
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
GOOD DISCHARGE
MEASUREMENT
 Keeping the meter clean of floating materials by raising
the meter out of water to let the debris pass by.
 When using the wading rod keep it vertical and keep your
feet 0.45 – 0.60 meters down stream from the meter.
 Read and record the river stage from an auxiliary staff
gauge periodically during the discharge measurement.
 If the stage begins to change by greater than 5% the
procedure may be speeded up by
 Decreasing the sounding time.
 Reducing the number of verticals.
STAGE & DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP
(RATING CURVE)
 The graphical curve between stage and discharge is called the stage-discharge
curve or rating curve.
 Stage is plotted along y-axis and discharge is plotted along x-axis.
 The shape of rating curve looks like parabola.

Stage

 The stage discharge rating depends upon Discharge

the channel control. For a permanent
control this relation may be applicable for years.
 It may be necessary to take at least three discharge measurements in a week to
check the rating curve because of random shifting of the stream channel
particularly during flood season
Continued….
STAGE & DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP
(RATING CURVE)
 There may be three types of rating curve for any type of
river.
 Low Flow Rating Curve:-
 It is the most frequently occurring.
 Intermediate Flow Rating Curve:-
 It is the stage between a flood and low flows.
 High flow Rating Curve:
 This occurs in high flood days, so rarely occurring situation. it is often
represented by dotted lines and is obtained by extension of low flow
rating curve.
 Not all rating curves are divided into three segments. This
division is purely artificial.
EFFECT OF CHANGING STAGE ON RATING
CURVE
 For particular control, discharge is different for different stage.
The stage of river may be constant, may be rising or may be
falling.
 The measured discharge for rising stage or falling stage is more
than or less than for a constant stage respectively.
 While plotting a stage discharge curve, the values of discharges
must be taken for constant stage. But practically it is not
possible, it is either measured during rising or falling stage.
 Hence, to obtain a true discharge curve, the measured
discharge must be corrected for changing stage.
EFFECT OF CHANGING STAGE ON RATING CURVE
 In rising stage, in order to make observe discharge point fall on
true discharge curve, either the discharge should be reduced
or the stage should be increased. i.e. –ve correction should
applied for discharge or +ve correction should applied for
stage.
 The deviation of observed values from true discharge
values depends upon the rate of change of stage only.
 Hence, rate of change of stage must be computed. For that,
time should be recorded at the beginning and end of gauging.
 Also separate graph can be potted between rate of change of
stage and % correction to be applied to the observed discharge
values, in order to obtain true discharge(Correction: +ve for
falling stage and –ve for rising stage).
EFFECT OF SHIFTING CONTROL ON RATING CURVE
 As we know for correct gauging permanency of control is must.
But control does not always behave as permanent control,
changes its positions many times.
 Due to shift in control, the observed discharge measurements are
not true values and will not fall on true discharge curve.
 For a fixed control with a changing stage, the observed points
fall to the left side or right side of true discharge curve for rising
stage or falling stage respectively.
 But when plotting the observed discharge values, it is found that
the points neither fall on the true discharge curve nor as per
provision of changing stage; hence it should be possibility of
change in control
EFFECT OF SHIFTING CONTROL ON RATING CURVE
 If control is found to be changing, it must to find out the rate of
shifting of control as the deviation of observed values of discharge,
depends on it. Also method to adopted for correcting the values are
depending on same.
 If control is changing very slowly or only at the time of floods,
then the best method to deal with the problem is to draw a new
rating curve as soon as sufficient change in control is detected. The
new curve is then applied for a period till sufficient deviation due
to change in control is again detected.
 But on many rivers the control changes quite rapidly and
constantly, in such a case, Stout’s method is generally used to
correct the observed values. In this method daily discharge records
are obtained and corrected. The gauge height correction curve is
used to find the daily gauge height correction values (which are
+ve or -ve) for discharge correction.
 EXTENSION OF RATING CURVE
• The most important use of the stage discharge/ rating curve is
obtaining discharge for any measured stage.
• Because, in frequency of floods it may often be practicable to
obtain correct discharge for high flows.
• Some times due to unprecedented floods, the stage may be so
high that it may not be possible to get the discharge from the
original rating curve.
• So we need an extension of the rating curve to obtain discharge
during high stage floods.
 Special methods have to be used to extend the original rating
curve to extrapolate the discharge corresponding to the
measured high stage.
 The most reliable method would be the one which straightens
the approximated parabolic rating curve for the convenience of
its extension.
Continued….
EXTENSION OF RATING CURVE
 The most commonly used methods which comply with this
condition are
 The Logarithmic Method
 A√D Method
 General method.

Continued….
THE LOGARITHMIC METHOD
• This method is used if the cross section of the stream at the gauging station is
of a regular shape and there is no possibility of getting a number of straight
lines of varying slopes.
• In general
Q = K (h-ho) m - - - - - - 13
where (h-ho) is the actual water depth and “ho” is the vertical distance
between the zero flow and zero datum. K and m are any constants.
• Now taking “log” on both sides
log Q = log [K (h-ho) m] = log K+ log (h-ho) m
log Q = log K + m log (h-ho) - - - - - - - 14
• The equation (14) is the equation of a straight line with Log K being the
intercept and “m” is the slope.
• In this equation the zero gauge height “ho” is determined by assuming the
various values of ‘ho’ until log Q when plotted against log (h-h o) forms a
straight line.
• This straight line can then be extended to extrapolate discharge
corresponding to the measured gauge height.
Continued….
 A√D METHOD
• This method is based on the Chezy’s formula
Q = C.A.√(RS) - - - - - - - - 15
where C = roughness coefficient (Chezy’s Constant)
S = Slope of energy line A = Cross sectional area
R = Hydraulic radius
• If C√S is assumed to be constant for the station and “D” is the mean depth
which substituted for “R”, only when the section is wide, then
Q = K A √D - - - - - - - - - 16
• If the stream is assumed to be a large rectangular channel (wide channel), then
R = A/P = B.y/(B+2y)……. (where P = Wetted perimeter)
 For a wide channel ‘2y’ can be neglected.
R = A/P = B.y/B = y = D
Q = K A√D or Q α A√D
 Knowing the values of Q and A we can plot a graph and get a straight line, which
may be extended. Values of A for stages above the existing rating can be
obtained by field measurements and used with the extended curve for estimates
of Q.
Continued….
 GENERAL METHOD
 This method is applicable for all types of river sections, but it is necessary to
know the stream cross-section at the gauge site. The cross section areas for
different gauge heights can be worked out by a planimeter from c/s map and curve
is plotted between gauge and area on the gauge-discharge curve.
 From these two curves, the velocity curve can also be drawn on same drawing
 After this, for extension of curve use Manning’s formula
V = (1/n).R2/3.S1/2
But (1/n). S1/2 is almost constant for higher river stage
Therefore, V α R2/3 or V = K. R2/3
Where, K is constant and R is hydraulic mean depth
 R can be worked out for all stages by knowing the area. And values of K can be
calculated for various available gauge heights from velocity curve and
corresponding values of R.
 These values of K are now plotted against gauge height so as to obtain curve, by
extending these line accurate value of k is obtained. By combining these values of
K with corresponding A and V, discharge values are obtain which are use to extend
discharge curve
Continued….
SLOPE AREA METHOD
• This method can be very suitably used to estimate the peak discharge
that has passed through an un-gauged stream
• This method of estimating high flow is by application of hydraulic
principles. Sufficient high water marks must be located along a reach of
channel to determine water surface slope at the time of peak.
• Cross sections of the channel may be determined by leveling or
sounding, and the area and hydraulic radius calculated.
• The Chezy-Manning formula is ordinarily used to calculate discharge.
• Manning’s Formula is different for both M.K.S. & F.P.S.
Q = A(1/n) R2/3√Sf (M.K.S) - - - - - - 17
Q = A(1.49/n) R2/3√Sf (F.P.S) - - - - - - - 18
Where, A = Area of cross section,
Sf = Frictional slope
n = Manning’s Constant ,
R = Hydraulic Radius
Continued….
SLOPE AREA METHOD
• The main source of error in applying this equation is in
estimating the roughness coefficient “n”.
• Since Q depends upon 1/n and the average value of “n” for
natural stream is about 0.035
• An error of 0.001 in “n” represents about 3% in error in
discharge.
• Under the most favorable conditions an error of 10% may be
expected in a slope area estimate of flow.
FLOOD
 A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to runoff from rainfall and/or
melting of snow in quantities too great to be confined in the normal water
surface elevations of the river or stream, as the result of unusual meteorological
combination.
 The flood may be defined as an overflow coming from some river or from
some other body of water
 Whenever the water overflows the bank of river is said to be flooded
 At some important locations danger level are assigned are called as flood stage
DESIGN FLOOD
The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass is called
the ‘design flood’ and is selected after consideration of
economic and hydrologic factors.
 The design flood is related to the project feature; for example,
the spillway design flood may be much higher than the design
flood adopted for the temporary coffer dams.
DESIGN FLOOD
 A design flood is selected by considering the cost of structure to
provide flood control and the flood control benefits
 Benefit can be categorized into direct and indirect.
 Direct (Tangible): prevention of damage to structures at downstream,
disruption in communication, loss of life and property, damage to
crops and under utilization of land
 Indirect (Intangible): the money saved under insurance and
workmen’s compensation laws, higher yields from intensive
cultivation of protected lands and elimination of losses arising from
interruption of business, reduction in diseases resulting from
inundation of flood waters.
 When the structure is designed for a flood less than the maximum
probable, there exists a certain amount of flood risk to the
structure, nor is it economical to design for 100% flood protection.
Protection against the highest rare floods is uneconomical because
of the large investment and infrequent flood occurrence.
DESIGN FLOOD
Standard Project Flood (SPF) This is the estimate of the flood
likely to occur from the most severe combination of the
meteorological and hydrological conditions, which are
reasonably characteristic of the drainage basin being
considered, but excluding extremely rare combination.
 Maximum Probable Flood (MPF) This differs from the SPF
in that it includes the extremely rare and catastrophic floods
and is usually confined to spillway design of very high dams.
The SPF is usually around 80% of the MPF for the basin.
 Design Flood It is the flood adopted for the design of
hydraulic structures like spillways, bridge openings, flood
banks, etc
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
 The maximum flood discharge (peak flood) in a river
may be determined by the following methods:
(i) Physical indications of past floods—flood marks and
local
enquiry
(ii) Empirical formulae
(iii) Rational method
(iv) Envelope curve
(v) Unit hydrograph
(vi) Flood frequency studies
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
(i) Physical indications of past floods—flood marks and local
enquiry
 By noting the flood marks (and by local enquiry), depths,
affluxes (heading up of water near bridge openings, or similar
obstructions to flow) and other items actually at an existing
bridge, on weir in the vicinity, the maximum flood discharge
may be estimated by use of Manning’s or Chezy’s equation

Estimate, A, P, R, S
n or C for actual site
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
(ii) Empirical formulae
 There are plenty of empirical formulae have been derived for the purpose
of estimating peak flood.
 This is because magnitude of flood of a given frequency depends upon
fifteen to twenty factors and no formulae involving all these variables. Most
of the formulae involve only two to three variables which cannot give that
much precise values.
 Some of these are as follows

a) Involving drainage area only

1) Dicken’s formula (1865): based on studies conducted for determining
waterways capacities for bridges.
-used for catchments of northern and central parts of India.
Qp = C.A3/4
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A = catchment area in Sq. km
C = constant depending on all factor but mostly on rainfall intensity
and topography. Range 6 to 28.
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
2) Ryve’s formula(1884): originally developed for Tamil Nadu region
- Used in Tamil Nadu, part of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Qp = C1.A2/3
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A = catchment area in Sq. km
C1 = constant depending on all factor but mostly on rainfall
intensity and topography. Range 6.8 to 10.2
3) Inglis formula (1930): based on flood data of catchments in Western
Ghats in Maharashtra.
- Applicable to fan-shaped catchments in old Bombay State
Qp = 123 A ≈ 123√A
√(A+10.4)
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A = catchment area in Sq. km
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
4) Nawab Jung Bahadur formula(1930): derived for Hyderabad-Deccan
catchments
Qp = C.A1[0.93- (1/14)log A1]
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A1 = catchment area in Sq. miles
C= constant , for South India is 49 & for North India is 60
- widely used in Maharashtra for design in small catchments.
5) W.P. Creager’s formula: developed from study of floods in USA
Qp = C.A10.894 A1^(-0.048)
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A1 = catchment area in Sq. miles
C= constant, 40 to 130
- Graphs between discharge and discharge area is plotted in USA
- similar curves were plotted in India by Shri Kanwar Sain for North
Indian as well as South India Rivers.
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
6) Jawris Formula :
Qp = C.√A
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
A = catchment area in Sq. km
C= constant , range 1.77 to 177

7) Modified Myer’s formula:

Qp = 177 p.√A
Where, Qp = peak discharge in cumec
p = has value of unity for stream that has the greatest
flood flow of the area, Range 0.002 to 1.0
 ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
b) Involving drainage area and its shape
8) Drege or Burge’s formula: based on Indian records
Qp = 19.6 A
L2/3
Where , L = length of drainage basin in km
If B is average width of basin in km; A=BL
Qp = 19.6 B.L = 19.6 B.L1/3
L2/3
9) Pettis formula: originated for Northern part of USA, Ohio to Connecticut
Qp = C.(P.B)5/4
Where, P = Probable 100 years maximum 1 day rainfall in cm
B = Avg. width of basin in km
C = Constant, for humid area 1.5 & for desert area 0.2
- Applicable to areas ranging from 1600 to 16000 sq. km with no storage
effect and fairly uniform width
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
c) Involving total runoff and drainage area
10) Boston society of Civil Engineering Formula:
Based on new England flood of Nov. 1927
qp = 0.0056(D/t)
Where, qp = Peak flow in cumec/sq. km
D = total depth of flood runoff in cm
t = total flood period in hours
- Evolved by assuming the flood hydrograph as a triangle
- where flood hydrograph not available ,
Qp = CF. D√A
Where, Qp = Peak flow in Cumec.
CF = coefficient of flood characteristics, range 0.7 to 3.5
A = drainage area in sq. km.
D = total depth of flood runoff
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
d) Involving drainage area and flood frequency
11) Fuller’s formula:
- derived for catchments of USA
- typical one of this kind
QTp = Cf. A0.8 [1 + 0.8 log T]
Where, QTp = Peak 24-hours flood with a frequency of T years in cumec.
Cf =Fuller’s constant, Range 0.18 to 1.88
A = drainage area in sq. km.

(iii) Rational Method

 This is oldest and best known formula that has been extensively used
for design of storm- sewers.
 The Rational Method is most effective in urban areas with drainage
areas of less than 200 acres. This method is typically used to determine
the size of storm sewers, channels, and other drainage structures.
 ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
The rational method is based on the application of the formula
Q=k.C.i.A
Where, C = coefficient depending on the runoff qualities of the catchment
called the runoff coefficient (0.2 to 0.8)
A = area of catchment,
i = rainfall intensity
k = conversion factor, 0.00278 to give flow in cumec

 i -is equal to the design intensity or critical intensity of rainfall (ic),

ic -corresponding to the time of concentration tc for the catchment for a
given recurrence interval T (also called return period);
 ic -can be found from the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves, for
the catchment corresponding to tc and T.
 ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
 If the intensity-duration-frequency curves, are not available for the
catchment and a maximum precipitation of P cm occurs during a storm
period of tR hours, then the design intensity i (= ic) can be obtained from
the empirical formulae as given below

 when the time of concentration, tc is not known, ic ≈ P/tR

 ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
 Time of concentration: It is defined as the time
needed for water to flow from the most remote
point in a watershed to the watershed outlet.
 The time of concentration equals the
summation of the travel times for each flow
regime along the hydraulic path or hydraulic
length.
tc=(L/V)1+(L/V)2+(L/V)3+…..
 The hydraulic length is the distance between the most distant point in the watershed
and the watershed outlet.
 Kirpich Formula
tc = 0.0078 L0.77S-0.385
Where tc = time of concentration in minutes.
L = maximum length of flow (ft)
S = the watershed gradient or the difference in elevation between the outlet
and the most remote point divided by the length L.
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
(iv) Envelope Curves
 Areas having similar topographical features and climatic
conditions are grouped together. All available data regarding
discharges and flood formulae are compiled along with their
respective catchment areas.
 Kanwar Sain and Karpov collected the data on Indian rivers and
have drawn two curves, one curve suits basins of South India
and other suits the basins for Northern and Central India.
 Not that much precise, need to revised time to time, not tell
future possibility.
 Hence used for preliminary guidance for determining peak
flood discharge.
 Useful for design of minor structures. It was used for dam
projects, such as Nagarjun sagar (A.P.) Deonur (Karnataka)
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
(v) Unit Hydrograph
 Peak of unit hydrograph is multiplied by actual precipitation of
design event to get expected peak of flood.
 In this method, By collecting data of unit hydrograph, rainfall
intensity, rainfall duration, infiltration capacities of catchments,
base flow, direct runoff hydrograph ; finding out flood
hydrograph.
 By using flood hydrograph peak flood discharge is calculated.

 Useful for computing design flood for small and medium size
basins say 5000 sq. km. for large basin, need to divide in sub-
basin.
Thank You