4.0 Chemicalbonding

CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL BONDING
4.1 The Lewis Structure
4.2 Molecular Shape and Polarity
4.3 Orbital Overlap and
Hybridisation
4.4 Intermolecular Forces
4.5 Metallic Bond
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson YOU should be able to :
(a) Write the Lewis symbol for an atom.
(b) State the octet rule and describe how atoms

obtain the octet configuration.
(c) Describe the formation of the following bonds

using Lewis dot symbol.
i. Ionic or electrovalent bond
ii. Covalent bond
iii. Dative or coordinate bond
(d) Draw Lewis structure of covalent species with

single, double and triple bonds.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, YOU should be able to :
(e) Compare the bond length between single, double

and triple bonds.
(f) Determine the formal charge and the most plausible

Lewis structure.
(g) Explain the exception to the octet rule :

incomplete octet, expanded octet and odd number
electrons.
(h) Explain the concept of resonance using appropriate

examples.
CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL BONDING
● Chemical bond is the force that holds two
atoms together in a molecule or compound
● Valence electrons play an important role in the

formation of chemical bonds
Lewis Symbol
A Lewis symbol consists of:
● the symbol of an element
● dots or cross is used to represent the
valence electrons in an atom of the element.
Elements in the same group have the same

valence electronic configurations and similar
Lewis symbols.
The Lewis Symbol for an Atom
Octet Rule:
 states that atoms tend to form bonds to obtain 8
electrons in the valence shell.
● Atoms combine to achieve stablility
→ to have the same electronic configuration as a
noble gas
● Atoms achieve noble gas configuration through:
i) transferring electrons
ii) sharing electron
● Bond formation involve transferring or sharing of
only valence electrons
Electronic Configuration of Cations and Anions
1) Noble gas configuration
Group 1, 2 and 13 elements donate valence
electrons to form cations with noble gas
configurations
Example:
Na : 1s22s22p63s1
Na+ : 1s22s22p6 (isoelectronic with Ne)
Ca : 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Ca2+ : 1s22s22p63s23p6
(isoelectronic with Ar)
● Group 15, 16 and 17 elements accept electrons
to form anions with noble gas configurations
Example:
O : 1s22s22p4
O2− : 1s22s22p6
(isoelectronic with neon)
Cl : 1s22s22p63s23p5
Cl− : 1s22s22p63s23p6
(isoelectronic with Ar)
2) Pseudonoble gas configuration
● d block elements donate electrons from 4s
orbitals to form cations with pseudonoble gas
configuration.
Example:
Zn : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
Zn2+ : 1s22s22p63s23p63d10
(pseudonoble gas configuration )
3) Stability of the half-filled orbitals
● d block element can also donate electrons to achieve
the stability of half-filled orbitals
Example:
Mn : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
Mn2+ : 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
(stability of half-filled 3d orbital )
Fe : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
Fe3+ : 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
(stability of half-filled 3d orbital)
4.1.3 Formation of the bonds using
Lewis Symbols
i. Ionic (electrovalent) bond

ii. Covalent bond
iii. Dative (coordinate) bond
4.1.3.1 Ionic bond
(Electrovalent bond)
● Ionic bond (electrovalent bond) is an
electrostatic attraction between positively and
negatively charged ions.
● Ionic compounds are formed when electrons

are transferred between atoms (metal to
nonmetal) to give electrically charged particles
that attract each other .
Example 1: NaCl
Sodium, an electropositive metal, tends to

remove its valence electron to obtain noble gas
electronic configuration (Ne).
Chlorine, an electronegative element, tend to

accept electron from Na to obtain noble gas
electronic configuration (Ar).
● The electrostatic forces between Na+ and
Cl- produce ionic bond
● These two processes occur simultaneously.
+
Example 2: CaCl2
Ca: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

(Has two electrons in its outer shell)
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

(Has seven outer electrons)
Calcium Chloride, CaCl2
If Ca atom transfer 2 electrons, one to each
chlorine atom, it become a Ca2+ ion with the stable
configuration of noble gas.
At the same time each chlorine atom to achieve

noble gas configuration gained one electron
becomes a Cl- ion to achieve noble gas
configuration.
The electrostatic attraction formed ionic bond

between the ions.
Ionic bond
(Formed by transfer of electrons)
Calcium Chloride
+ + 2
Example 3: LiF
+
Lewis structure and formation of ionic compounds
1) CaCl2
+ + 2
2) MgO
+
3) CaBr2
+ +
● Ionic bond is very strong, therefore ionic
compounds:
1. Have very high melting and boiling
points
2. Hard and brittle
3. Can conduct electricity when they are in
molten form or aqueous solution
because of the mobile ions
Exercises:
By using Lewis structure, show how the ionic

bond is formed in the compounds below.
( a ) KF
( b ) BaO
( c ) Na2O
4.1.3.2 Covalent Bond
Definition of covalent bond
i. Chemical bond in which two or more electrons
are shared by two atoms.
ii. The electrostatic force between the electrons
being shared the nuclei of the atoms.
Why should two atoms share electrons?
To gain stability by having noble gas

configuration (octet)
Example
F + F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-
Lewis structure of F2
single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs
single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs
9.4
Covalent compounds:
● Compounds may have these covalent
bonds:
i. Single bond
ii. Double bond
iii. Triple bond.
Lewis structure of water
H + O+ H H O H
2e- 8e- 2e-
or
single covalent bonds

H O H
Double bond – two atoms share
two pairs of electrons
O C O or O C O
8e- 8e- 8e-
double bonds double
bonds
Triple bond – two atoms share
three pairs of electrons
N N or N N
8e- 8e-
triple
bond triple
bond
4.1.3.3 Coordinate Covalent Bond
(Dative Bond)
● Dative bond is a bond in which the pair of
shared electrons is supplied by one of the two
bonded atoms
● Involve overlapping of a full orbital and an
empty orbital.
Requirement for dative bonds:
i. Donor atoms should have at least
one lone pair electrons.
ii. The atoms that accepts these
electrons should have empty
orbitals.
Dative bond in ammonium ion (NH4+):
H
H- N
.. H+
1s
H
(has a lone pair) (has empty orbital)
H H
H- N + H+ [ H- N H ] +
..
H H
dative bond
Steps in Writing Lewis Structures
1. Count total number of valence e- of atoms involved.

2. Add 1 for each negative charge. Subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
3. Draw skeletal structure of the compound. Put least
electronegative element in the center.
4. Complete an octet for all terminal atoms except
hydrogen.
5. Give remaining electrons to the central atom.
6. If the central atom does not achieve octet or lowest
formal charge, form double and triple bonds on
central atom as needed.
Example
Draw the Lewis structure for each of the
following compounds:
i. HF
ii. CH4
iii. CHCl3
iv. NH3
v. H2O
HF
Total no. of valence
electrons
H: 1e
F: 7e
Total : 8e
CH4
Number of electrons
C : 4e
4H : 4e
Total : 8e
CHCl3 Center atom: N
Count electrons:
C : 4e
H : 1e
3Cl : 21e
Total : 26 e
NH3
Count electrons:
N : 5e
3H : 3e
Total : 8e
H2O
Count electrons:
O : 6e
2H : 2e
Total : 8e
Bond length
Distance between the nuclei of the 2 atoms
in a bond.
The shorter the bond length, the closer the

2 atoms held together = stronger bond
Bond Bond length (pm)
C O 143
C O 123
C O 113
C C 154
C C 134
C C 121
Triple bond has the shortest bond length and
single bond has the longest .
So, triple bond is the strongest bond.
Formal Charge
 It is often that we can write more than one
Lewis structures for a molecule.
 Example :
and
 The concept of formal charge is one way to

determine the most stable Lewis structure.
Formal Charge (FC)
 Formal charge on an atom in a Lewis structure
is the charge it would have if the bonding
electrons were shared equally.
 The FC can be calculated by using :
Formal Charge = Number of - Number of

Valence e e assigned
to atom
or …
FC = Valence é - lone pair - ½(bonding pair)
Formal Charge (FC)
Example 1 : Formaldehyde, HCOH
O
C
H H
Step 1 : Calculate the formal charge on the C atom
Total number of non bonding electrons = 0
Bonding electrons = 8
FC of C = V é - lone pair - ½(é bond pair)
= 4 – 0 – ½(8)
= 0
Calculate the FC for oxygen and hydrogen.
Formal Charge (FC)
formal charge on H
H = 1 - 0 - (½ x 2) = 0
C O
H
formal charge on O
= 6 - 4 - (½ x 4) = 0
ormal Charge (FC)
NOTE :
- Formal charge is used to determine the most stable or
the most plausible Lewis structure .
- The most plausible Lewis structure is one which…

(a) The atoms bear the smallest Formal charges.
(b) The -ve FC appears on most e-negative atom.
(c) The +ve FC appears on the least e-negative
atom.
- The sum of the FC on the atoms must equal zero for a

neutral molecule or must equal to the ionic charge of the
polyatomic ion.
EXAMPLE
1) Draw all the possible Lewis structure of COCl2.
2) Predict the most plausible structure.
SOLUTION
1) 2)
The most plausible structure is (2) because it has

the lowest formal charge.
Formal Charge allows the selection for the best

Lewis structure (the most plausible)
EXERCISE 1
● Draw the possible Lewis structures for HNO2.

● Determine the most plausible Lewis structures
for HNO2.
EXERCISE 2
● Suggest the possible Lewis structure for H2SO4.

Explain your answer.
EXCEPTION TO THE OCTET RULE
Three conditions:
1) Incomplete octet
2) Expanded octet
3) Odd no. electron
Incomplete octet
● Occurs when central atom has less than 8
electrons.
● Elements that can form incomplete octet are:

Boron,B , Beryllium, Be & Aluminium, Al.
● This is due to elements being relatively small in

size but having high nuclear charge.
Expanded octet
● Occurs when central atom has more than 8
electrons.
● Formed by non-metals that have d orbitals
OR
● Non-metals of the 3rd, 4th, 5th….rows in the
periodic table
Odd number electrons molecules
Nitrogen may form compounds that contain odd
number electrons.
Example:
Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2
RESONANCE STRUCTURE
● The use of two or more Lewis structures to
represent a particular molecule.
● Requirement:
Molecules/ions must have multiple bonds and
lone pairs electrons at the terminal atoms.
RESONANCE STRUCTURE FOR NO3-
EXERCISE:
Write Lewis structures of the
following compounds/ ions:
CCl4 CO32- HCN PCl3 HNO3
PO43- C2 H 4 C2H2 CH2Cl2 ICl
NH4+ NF3 H2S N2H4 PH3
CS2 NO2- XeF4 NH3 HCOOH
SO42- ICl4- SF6 O3 NO2
4.2 MOLECULAR SHAPE
AND POLARITY
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to :
(a) Explain Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory
(b) Draw the basic molecular shapes:
linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal
bipyramidal and octahedral.
(c) Predict and explain the shapes of molecule and
bond angles in a given species.
(d) Explain the polarity and dipole moment.
(e) Deduce the polarity of molecules based on the
shapes and the resultant dipole moment.
4.2 MOLECULAR SHAPE

AND POLARITY
i. VSEPR theory
ii. 5 basic shapes
iii. Polarity of molecule
4.2 MolecularMolecular
Shape and Polarity
shape:
Introduction
■ shows the 3-dimensional arrangement of
atoms in a molecule
■ Predicted by using Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
4.2.1 VSEPR
■ The Valence-Shell Electron Repulsion
theory states that:
The valence electron pairs around the

central atom are oriented as far apart
as possible to minimize the repulsion
between them.
The repulsion may occur either between:
a) bonding pair & another bonding pair

b) bonding pair & lone pairs or
c) between lone pair & another lone pairs
The strength of repulsion:
■ The order of repulsive force is:
Lone pair- Lone pair-bonding Bonding pair-

lone pair > > bonding pair
repulsion pair repulsion repulsion
Decrease of the repulsion force
Note:
The electron pairs repulsion will determine
the orientation of atoms in space.
4.2.2 Shape of a molecule

■ Basic shapes are based on the repulsion
between the bonding pairs.
■ Tips to determine the molecular shape :

Step 1: Draw Lewis structure of the molecule
Step 2: Consider the number of bonding pairs
Step 3: Place bonding pairs as far as possible
to minimize repulsion.
BASIC MOLECULAR SHAPES
• Linear
• Trigonal Planar
• Tetrahedral
• Trigonal bipyramidal
• Octahedral
A. Molecules with 2 bonding pairs
■ shape
Example: BeCl2
Lewis structure
Be : 2e 180°
2Cl :14e
Total : 16 e
.. ..
Cl
: Be Cl: .. Linear
..
B. Molecules with 3 bonding-pairs

■ Example: BCl3
■ Repulsive forces
Lewis structure between pairs are the
B: 3e
same
3Cl : 21e
Total: 24e
120°
:
Cl
..
..
.. ..
: Cl
.. B Cl :
..
Trigonal planar
C. Molecules with 4 bonding pairs

■ Example: CH4 ■ Equal repulsion
Lewis structure between bonding pairs
– equal angle
H
H C H 109.5°
Tetrahedral
D. Molecules with 5 bonding pairs
■ Example: PCl5
■ Lewis structure ■ Shape:
90°
:
Cl
..
..
..
.. Cl :
Cl
: P ..
..
120°
Cl :
..
..
Cl
..
..
Trigonal bipyramidal
:
E. Molecules with 6 bonding pairs
■ Example: SF6
Lewis structure
Octahedral
S : 6e
6F : 42e 90o
Total : 48e
90o
2 electron pairs in the valence shell
of central atom:
Class of Number Number Shape
molecules of bonding of lone
pairs pairs
AB2 2 0 180°
Linear
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB3 3 0
120°
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB4 4 0
109.5o
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB5 5 0
90°
120°
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB6 6 0
90°
90°
4.2.3 Effect of lone pairs on
molecular shape
■ The geometries of molecules and
polyatomic ions, with one or more lone
pairs around the central atom can be
predicted using VSEPR.
■ The molecular geometry is determined

by the repulsions of electron pairs in the
valence shell of the central atoms.
■ Repulsion between electron pairs decreases

in the order of:
Lone pair- Lone pair- Bonding pair-
lone pair bonding
> > bonding pair
repulsion pair repulsion repulsion
Stronger to weaker repulsion

■ Electrons in a bond are held by the attractive

forces exerted by the nuclei of the two bonded
atoms therefore, they take less space of
repulsion.
■ Lone- pair electrons in a molecule occupy

more space; therefore they experience greater
repulsion from neighboring lone pairs and
bonding pairs.
Number of electron pair : 3

Example : SO2
■ Class of molecules : AB2E

■ Molecular shape : Bent / V-shaped

Example : NH3

■ Molecular shape : Trigonal pyramidal

Example : H2O
■ Class of molecules : AB2E2

■ Molecular shape : Bent / V-shaped
Example : SF4

■ Molecular shape : Distorted tetrahedron /
seesaw
Example : ClF3
■ Molecular shape : T-shaped

Example : I3-
■ Molecular shape : Linear


Example : BrF5
■ Molecular shape : Square pyramidal


Example : XeF4
■ Molecular shape : Square planar

Shape of molecules which the central
atom has one or more lone pairs
pairs pairs
AB2E 2 1
Bent / V-shaped
4 electron pairs in the valence shell of
central atom:
pairs pairs
AB3E 3 1
Trigonal pyramidal
4 electron pairs in the valence shell of
central atom:
pairs pairs
AB2E2 2 2
Bent / V-shaped
Bond angle : < 109.5o
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB4E 4 1
Distorted tetrahedral
(see-saw)
of central atom:

pairs pairs
AB3E2 3 2
of central atom:

pairs pairs
AB2E3 2 3
Linear
of central atom:
pairs pairs
AB5E 5 1
Square pyramidal
Bond angle :90o and
of central atom:

pairs pairs
AB4E2 4 2
Square planar
COMPARISON OF BOND ANGLE

IN CH4, NH3 AND H2O
109.5o 107.3o 104.5o

a) CH4
■ Has 4 bonding pairs electrons.
■ The repulsion between the bonding pairs

electrons are equal.
■ The bond angles are all 109.5o

b) NH3
■ has 3 bonding pairs electron and 1 lone pair
electron.
■ according to VSEPR, lone pair - bonding pair >

bonding pair - bonding pair repulsion.
■ Lone- pair repels the bonding-pair more strongly,

the three NH bonding-pair are pushed closer
together, thus HNH angle in ammonia become
smaller, 107.3o.
c) H2O
■ Has 2 bonding pairs electrons and 2 lone pair
electrons.
■ According to VSEPR, lone pair – lone pair > lone
pair – bonding pair > bonding pair – bonding
pair repulsion.
■ Lone-pair tend to be as far from each other as
possible.
■ Therefore, the two OH bonding-pairs are pushed
toward each other.
■ Thus, the HOH angle is 104.5o.
4.2.4 POLAR AND NONPOLAR MOLECULES
■ A quantitative measure of the polarity of a bond is its
dipole moment ( µ ).
µ
µ = Qr
Where : µ = dipole moment

Q = the product of the charge from
electronegativity
r = distance between the charges.
Dipole moments are usually expressed in debye

units(D).
E.g : Polarity of HF
■ Hydrogen fluoride is a covalent molecule with a
polar bond.
■ F atom is more electronegative than H atom,

so the electron density will shift from H to F.
■ The symbol of the shifted electron can be

represented by a crossed arrow to indicate the
direction of the shift.
δ+: partial positive charge

δ+ δ- δ- : partial negative charge
■ Diatomic molecules containing atoms of
different elements (e.g. : HCl, NO and CO)
have dipole moments and are called polar
molecules.
■ Diatomic molecules containing atoms of the

same element (e.g. : H2, N2 and Cl2) do not
have dipole moments and are called nonpolar
molecules.
For polyatomic molecules, the polarity of the

bond and the molecular geometry determine
whether there is a dipole moment.
Even if polar bond are present, the molecules

will not necessarily have a dipole moment.
Example
Predict the polarity of the following molecules:
– Carbon dioxide, CO2
– Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4
– Chloromethane, CH3Cl
– Ammonia, NH3
(a) Carbon dioxide, CO2
- molecular geometry : linear

- oxygen is more electronegative than carbon,
- Dipole moment can cancel each other
- has no net dipole moment (µ = 0)
- therefore CO2 is a nonpolar molecule.
(b) Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4
- molecular geometry : tetrahedral

- Chlorine is more electronegative than carbon,
- Dipole moment can cancel each other
- has no net dipole moment (µ = 0)
- therefore CCl4 is a nonpolar molecule.
( c) Chloromethane, CH3Cl

- Cl is more electronegative than C,
- C is more electronegative than H
- Dipole moment cannot cancel each other
- has a net dipole moment (µ ≠ 0)
- therefore, CH3Cl is a polar molecule.
(d ) Ammonia, NH3

- N is more electronegative than H,
- Dipole moment cannot cancell each other
- has a net dipole moment (µ ≠ 0)
- therefore, NH3 is a polar molecule.
Factors that affected the polarity of

molecules
■ molecular geometry
■ electronegativity of the bonded atoms.
BOND
NON-POLAR
POLAR
NON-POLAR
MOLECULES
NON-POLAR POLAR
MOLECULES MOLECULES
Symetrical molecules Non-symetrical molecules

- basic molecular shape with the - basic molecules with different
same terminal atom terminal atom
- molecules with lone pairs linear - molecules with lone pairs except
(from trigonal bipyramidal) and linear and square planar
square planar with the same
terminal atom.
Exercises :
Predict the polarity of the following molecules:
● SO2 ; HBr ; SO3 ; CH2Cl2 ; ClF3 ; CF4 ; H2O ; XeF4 ;

NF3 ;
4.3 ORBITAL OVERLAP & HYBRIDISATION
4.3 ORBITAL OVERLAP AND

HYBRIDIZATION
1. Formation Covalent Bond

2. Formation Hybrid orbitals
3. Orbital Overlapping
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this subtopic, students should be able to:
1. Draw and describe the formation of sigma(σ) and pi(π)
bonds from overlapping of orbitals.
2. Describe the formation of hybrid orbitals of a central
atom: sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2 using appropriate
examples.
3. Illustrate the hybridization of the central atom
and the overlapping orbitals in molecules.
4.3.1 Valence Bond theory
• explains the formation of covalent bonds
and the molecular geometry outlined by
the VSEPR.
• States that a covalent bond is formed
when the neighboring atomic orbitals
overlap.
• Overlapping may occur between:
a) orbitals with unpaired electrons
b) an orbital with paired electrons and
another empty orbitals (dative bond)
FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND
• Valence bond theory - Covalent bond is formed

when two neighbouring atomic half-filled orbitals
overlap.
• Two types of covalent bonds are

a) sigma bond (σ)
b) pi bond (π)
a) σ bond
• formed when orbitals overlap along its
internuclear axis (end to end overlapping)
Example:
i. overlapping s orbitals
H + H H H
σ bond
ii. Overlapping of s and p orbitals
Px orbital
H + x H x
σ bond
iii. Overlapping of p orbitals
+ x
x x
σ bond
b) π bond
• Formed when two p-orbitals of the same
orientation overlap sideways
y y y y
π bond
y y y y
π bond
+
Formation of bonds in a molecule
• Covalent bonds may form by:
a) overlapping of pure orbitals
b) overlapping of hybrid orbitals
Overlapping of pure orbitals
• Example : O2
Consider the ground state configuration:
O : 1s2 2s2 2p4
Two unpaired electrons
to be used in bonding.
y y
1s 2s 2p π
Overlapping occurs O O x
σ
between the p-orbitals
of each atom.
π
4.3.2 Formation Hybrid orbitals
• Overlapping of hybrid orbitals and the pure
orbitals occur when different type of atoms
are involved in the bonding.
• Hybridization of orbitals:
mixing of two or more atomic orbitals to form
a new set of hybrid orbitals
• The purpose of hybridisation is to produce

new orbitals which have equivalent energy
4.3.2 Formation Hybrid orbitals

• Number of hybrid orbitals is equal to number of
pure atomic orbitals used in the hybridization
process.
Hybridisation
• Hybrid orbitals have different shapes from
original atomic orbitals.
• Types of hybridisation reflects the
shape/geometry of a molecule.
• Only the central atoms will be involved in
hybridization.
There are 5 common types of hybrid orbitals :
Orbital
Types Hybrid of..
arrangement
sp One s-orbital + one p-orbital Linear
Trigonal
sp2
One s-orbital + two p-orbital
planar
sp3 One s-orbital + three p-orbital Tetrahedral
One s-orbital + three p-orbital Trigonal
sp d
3
+ one d-orbital bipyramidal
One s-orbital + three p-orbital
sp d
3 2
octahedral
+ two d-orbital
sp3 hybridization
• one s orbital and three p orbitals are mixed to
form four sp3 hybrid orbitals
• the geometry of the four hybrid orbitals is
tetrahedral with the angle of 109.5o .
sp3
sp3
sp 3
sp 3
Mixing of s and three p orbitals

Example CH4:
• Step 1: Draw Lewis structure :
• Step 2: Write the electronic configuration of
hybridised atom.
• Step 3: Draw valence orbital diagram ;
C ground state :
C excited :
C hybrid :
H:
• Step 4: Draw Orbital Overlap

Lewis Structure
Example : Methane, CH4
H
Electronic configuration C : 1s 2s 2p 2 2 2
H C H
Ground state of C : H
2s 2p
Excitation:
to have 4 unpaired electrons
H 1s
Excited state of C : sp3

2s 2p
C sp3
1s
Hybridised state : sp3 H
sp3
sp3 hybrid H
H
1s
1s
shape: tetrahedral
Lewis Structure
Example 2 : ammonia, NH3
Ground state N:
H N H
2s 2p
H
• The nitrogen atom already has three unpaired electrons.

• Therefore the electron in 2s orbital will not be promoted.
• However 2s and 2p orbitals still undergo the hybridisation
process to form sp3 orbitals.
sp3
Hybridised state N : σ N σ
sp3 sp3
sp 3
sp 3
sp 3
sp 3
1s
H 1s sp3
H
σ < 109.5˚
1s
Lewis Structure
Example 3 : water, H2O
Ground state O : H O
2s 2p H
• The oxygen atom already has two unpaired electrons.

• Therefore, the electron in 2p orbital will not be promoted.
• However, 2s and 2p orbitals still undergo the
hybridisation process to form sp3 orbitals.
sp3
Hybridised state O :
sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3 O σ
sp3 sp3
1s
sp3
< 109.5˚ H
σ
1s
H
sp hybridization
2
• one s orbital and two p orbitals are mixed to

form three sp2 hybrid orbitals
• the geometry of the three hybrid orbitals is
trigonal planar with the angle of 120o .
s sp2
px py sp 2 sp2
one
137
s orbital + two p orbitals three sp2 orbitals
Consider : Boron triflouride (BF3) molecule
The lewis structure for BF3 is
:é config for B : 1s2 2s2 2p1
5
é config for 9F : 1s2 2s2 2p5
Ground state, B :
2s 2p
Ground state, F :
2s 2p
According to VBT, it is not possible for B to form
three covalent bond with three F atoms because …
• Boron atom has one unpaired electron and can
form only one bond with other orbital.
Consider : Boron triflouride (BF3) molecule
Ground state, B :
2s 2p
• The electron in 2s orbital is promoted

to an unoccupied 2p orbital.
Exited state, B :
2s 2p
The 2s orbital then mix with two of the 2p orbitals.
Hybridised state, B : sp2 sp2 sp2 Unhybridised !

Example: BF3
Pure p orbital
σ
σ
sp2 sp2
F : 1s22s22p5
sp2
σ
Shape : trigonal planar

sp2 hybridisation : ethene molecule
Ethene molecule contains a carbon-carbon double
bond and has a trigonal planar geometry.
sp2 hybridisation : ethene molecule
The ground-state electron configuration of C atom :

Ground state of C :   
2s 2p
• Promoting a 2s electron into a 2p orbital
Excited state of C :    
2s 2p
• Mixing the 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals generates
three sp2 hybrid orbital. One of 2p orbital remains
unchanged.
Hybrid state of C :    
sp2 sp2 sp2 2p
hybridised Unhybridised orbital
σ bonds
π bond
143
144
sp hybridization
• one s orbital and one p orbital are mixed to
form two sp hybrid orbitals
• the geometry of the two hybrid orbitals is linear
with the angle of 180o .
Types of hybrid orbitals
Formation of sp Hybrid Orbitals
sp sp Produces linear shape

sp hybridisation : Beryllium chloride ( BeCl2)
• BeCl2 molecule is predicted to be linear by VSEPR .
• The orbital diagram for the valence electrons in Be is :
Ground state Be : 
2s 2p
• In ground state, Be atom does not form covalent bond
with Cl atom because electrons are paired in the 2s
orbital of the Be atom.
• Electron from 2s orbital is promoted to the 2p orbital,
Excited state Be :  
2s 2p
sp hybridisation : Beryllium chloride ( BeCl2)
• Mixing 2s orbital and 2p orbital to form two

equivalent sp orbitals.
Hybrid state Be :  
sp sp
σ σ
Consider : Beryllium chloride ( BeCl2)
σ σ
The orbital diagram for the valence electrons in Be is :
Ground state Be : 

2s 2p
Excited state Be :  
2s 2p
Hybridised state Be :  
sp sp 2p
sp hybridisation : C2H2 molecule
• The acetylene molecule contains a carbon-carbon
triple bond. The molecule is linear.
  
H C C H

• The orbital diagram for the ground state of carbon is:

Ground state C :   
2s 2p
• Promoting electron from 2s orbital to a 2p orbital

result in the following excited state,
Excited state C :    
2s 2p
sp hybridisation : C2H2 molecule
• Mixing 2s orbital with one 2p orbital generates

two sp hybrid orbitals.
• the two 2p orbitals remains unchanged.
Hybrid state C :    
sp sp 2p
hybridised Unhybridized
p-orbital
sp hybridisation of a carbon atom
sp sp 2p
unhybridised
153
sp hybridisation
Lets try: CO2 molecule
..  
..
O
..  C  O..
sp3d hybridization
• one s orbital, three p orbitals and one d orbital

are mixed to form five sp3d hybrid orbitals.
• the geometry of the five hybrid orbitals is
trigonal bipyramidal with the angle of 120o
and 90o
Consider : PCl5
The Lewis structure :
The orbital diagram for the valence
electrons in P is :
Ground state P :
3s 3p 3d
Excited state P :
3s 3p 3d
Hybridised state P :
sp3dsp3d sp3dsp3d sp3d 3d
unhybridised
sp3d hybridisation : PCl5
Ground state Cl :
3s 3p
p
Cl
p 
Cl  sp3d
sp 3
d

sp3d p
P Cl
Bond  sp
3 d
angle ?? sp3d
Cl 
p
Cl Molecular geometry :
p Trigonal bipyramidal
sp3d hybridisation : PCl5
Cl
Cl
P Cl
Cl
Cl
sp3d hybridisation : BrF3
electrons in Br is :
Ground state Br :
3s 3p 3d
Excited state Br :
3s 3p 3d
Hybridised state Br :
sp3d sp3dsp3dsp3d sp3d 3d
unhybridised
sp3d hybridisation :
BrF3
p
Bond angle: F

sp3d < 90°
 
p sp3d sp3d p
F Br sp3d
F
sp3d
Molecular geometry :
T shape !!
sp3d2 hybridization
• one s orbital, three p orbitals and two d
orbitals are mixed to form six sp3d2 hybrid
orbitals
• the geometry of the six hybrid orbitals is
octahedral with the angle of 90o
sp3d2 hybrid orbitals adopt

octahedral geometry.
Consider : SF6
electrons in S is :
Ground state S :
3s 3p 3d
Excited state S :
3s 3p 3d
Hybridised state S :
3d
unhybrid
sp3d2
sp3d2 hybridisation : SF6
The sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) molecule has

octahedral geometry base on VSEPR.
The ground state electron configuration of S is :
Ground state S :
3s 3p 3d
Ground state S :
3s 3p 3d
Promoting a 3s and 3p electrons into a 3d orbital

result in the following excited state :
Excited state S :
3s 3p 3d
s orbital mix with three p orbitals and two d orbitals to

form six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals.
Hybridised state S :
unhybrid
sp3d2 3d
165
How do I predict the hybridization of the central atom?
Count the number of lone pairs AND the number

of atoms bonded to the central atom
No of Lone Pairs
+
No of Bonded Atoms Hybridization Examples
2 sp BeCl2
3 sp2 BF3
4 sp3 CH4, NH3, H2O
5 sp3d PCl5
6 sp3d2 SF6
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.
167
Exercise:
• For each of the following, draw the orbital
overlap to show the formation of covalent
bond
a) XeF2
b) O3
c) ICl4−
d) OF2
4.4 Intermolecular forces
4.4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION, IMF
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
1. Describe intermolecular forces

i. van der Waals forces :
- dipole-dipole interactions or permanent
dipole
- London forces or dispersion forces
ii. Hydrogen bonding
2. Explain factors that influence the strength of van der Waals forces.
3. Explain the effects of hydrogen bonding on
i. boiling point
ii. Solubility
iii. Density of water compared to ice
∙ Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces

between molecules.
Intermolecular Forces
Van der Waal Hydrogen

Forces Bond
Between Between
covalent covalent
molecules
molecules with H
covalently
bonded to
F, O or N
172
van der Waal Forces

■ Forces that act between covalent molecules
■ types of interaction:
i. Dipole-dipole attractive forces
- act between polar molecules
ii. London Dispersion forces
- act between non-polar molecules
Dipole-dipole forces
(permanent dipole forces)
■ Exist in polar covalent compounds
■ Polar molecules have permanent dipole due to the
uneven electron distributions
Example:
δ δ
δ - δ -
+ +
H Cl H Cl
Chlorine is more Dipole-dipole forces; the

electronegative, partially positive end attracts
thus it has higher the partially negative end
electron density
London Dispersion Forces

■ attractive forces that exist between non-polar
molecules.
■ result from the temporary (instantaneous)
polarization of molecules.
■ The temporary dipole molecules will be
attracted to each other and these attractions is
known as the London Forces or London
Dispersion forces.
The formation of London forces

■ At any instant, electron distributions in one
molecule may be unsymmetrical.
■ The end having higher electron density is
partially negative and the other is partially
positive.
■ An instant dipole moment that exists in a
molecule induces the neighboring molecule to
be polar.
Example:
London forces in Br2
Electrons in a molecule
move randomly about the
nucleus
Br Br
At any instant, the
electron density might
be higher on one side The temporary dipole
δ- molecule induce the
δ- δ+
δ+ neighboring atom to
be partially polar
Br Br Br Br
Temporary
dipole molecule
London forces
Factors that influence the strength of the van

der Waals forces.
■ The molecular size/molecular mass
Molecules with higher molar mass have stronger van
der Waals forces as they tend to have more electrons
involved in the London forces.
Example:
CH4 has lower boiling point than C2H6
■ Note:
However, if two molecules have similar molecular
mass, the dipole-dipole interaction will be more
dominant.
Example: H2S has higher boiling point than CH3CH3
Hydrogen intermolecular bond
■ Dipole-dipole interaction that acts between a
Hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a
highly electronegative atom ; F, O ,N in one
molecule and F,O or N of another molecule.
Example:
δ- δ-
δ
+
δ +
H F H F
Hydrogen
intermolecular bond
Other examples:
NH3 liquid H2O
.. Hydrogen
N intermolecular bond
H
H H .. ..
..
O
..
Hydrogen O
.. intermolecular bond H H
H H
N
H
H H ..
..
O
Covalent bond H H
.. Hydrogen
..
O intermolecular bond
H H
Consider ethanol, CH3OH
CH3OH CH3OH and methane
H
Hydrogen bond Not a hydrogen
bond
.. C
O H .. H
..
H
O H H ..
..
H
O
..
C in
H C
H H C
H
H H H is not H
bonded to H H
either F, O
or N
Example: H2O
___ covalent bond
----- hydrogen bond
Properties of compounds with Hydrogen
intermolecular forces
Boiling point
■ Have relatively high boiling point than compounds
having dipole-dipole forces or London forces
- the hydrogen bond is the strongest attraction
force compared to the dipole-dipole or the London
forces.
London dispersion < dipole-dipole < H-bonding

Solubility
A. Dissolve in polar solvent
■ The molecules that posses hydrogen bonds
are highly polar.
■ They may form interaction with any polar
molecules that act as solvent.
B. Dissolve in any solvent that can form
Hydrogen bonds
Example
■ NH3 dissolves in water because it can form
hydrogen intermolecular bond with water.
..
..
O
Hydrogen bond
H H
..
..
N
N H
H H H
H H
Problem:
■ Explain the trend of boiling point given by the
graph below:
T/oC
HF
HI
HBr
HCl
Molecular mass
Answer
■ HF can form hydrogen bonds between molecules
while HCl, HBr and HI have van der Waals forces
acting between molecules. Hydrogen
intermolecular bond is stronger that the van der
Waals forces. More energy is required to break the
hydrogen bond.
■ Boiling point increases from HCl to HI. The strength

of van der Waals forces increases with molecular
mass. Since molecular mass increases from HCl to
HI, thus the boiling point will also increase in the
same pattern.
The effect of hydrogen bond on water

molecules
■ The density of water is relatively high
compared to other molecules with similar molar
mass.
Reason:
Hydrogen intermolecular bonds are stronger
than the dipole-dipole or the London forces.
Thus, the water molecules are drawn closer to
one another and occupy a smaller volume.
Density
Ice (solid H2O) has lower density compared to its
liquid. Refer to the structure of ice
Ice form tetrahedral arrangement
Hydrogen bond takes

one of the tetrahedral
orientation and occupy
some space
■ H2O(l) is denser than H2O(s) because
When cooled to solid(ice), each molecules of water
in ice is tetrahedrally bonded to four other
molecules to maximise the amount of hydrogen
bonds between them.
Empty space between molecules will give rise to an

open structure.
The large space in ice cause ice is less dense than
water.
Boiling points of substance with

Hydrogen intermolecular bonds
■ The boiling points of these substances are affected
by:
a) the number of hydrogen bonds per molecule
b) the strength of H intermolecular forces which
directly depends on the polarity of the hydrogen
bond.
Example:
Explain the trend of boiling points given below:
The order of the increase in boiling point is:
H2O > HF > NH3 > CH4
Answer:
■ by looking at the polarity of the bond, we have
(Order of polarity: HF > H2O > NH3)
but H2O has the highest boiling point.
For H2O, the number of hydrogen bonds per molecule
affects the boiling point.
■ Each water molecule can form 4 hydrogen bonds with
other water molecules. More energy is required to
break the 4 Hydrogen bonds.
■ HF has higher boiling point than NH3 because F is
more electronegative than Nitrogen.
■ CH4 is the lowest - it is a nonpolar compound and has
weak van der Waals forces acting between
molecules.
Effects of intermolecular forces on

physical properties
1)Boiling point
■ For molecules with similar size, the order of
intermolecular strength:
Hydrogen bond > dipole-dipole forces >
London dispersion forces
■ Strength of intermolecular forces ↑
⇒ boiling point ↑
196
Why boiling point H2O > HF and HF > NH3?

■ Fluorine is more electronegative than
oxygen, therefore stronger hydrogen bonding
is expected to exist in HF liquid than in H2O.
■ However, the boiling point of H2O is higher
than HF because each H2O molecules has 4
hydrogen bonds.
■ On the other hand, H-F has only 2 hydrogen
bonds.
■ Therefore, the hydrogen bonds are stronger in
H2O rather than in H-F.
Boiling point HF > NH3

■ Fluorine is more electronegative than
nitrogen ,thus the hydrogen bonding in H-F is
stronger than H-N.
4.5 THE METALLIC BOND
4.5 Metallic bond

At the of the lesson, you should be able to …
(a) Explain the formation of metallic bond by using the
electron sea model.
(b) Relate the metallic bond to the following properties
of metal :
i. malleability
ii. ductility
iii. electrical conductivity
iv. thermal conductivity
(c) Explain the factors that affect the strength of
metallic bond.
(d) Relate the strength of metallic bond and the
change of boiling point of substances period 3,
group 1 and group 17.
Metallic bond
■ An electrostatic force between positive charge
metallic ions and the sea of delocalised
electrons.
■ Bonding electrons are delocalised over the
entire crystal which can be imagined as an
array of the ions immersed in a sea of
delocalized valence electron.
Positive
Metallic bonds
ions are
immersed in
the sea of
e e e
electrons e
e e e e
Free
moving
electrons
e e e e
Positive ions
Metallic bonds
are immersed in
the sea of e e e e
delocalised Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+
electrons
e
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+
e e e
Free
moving
electrons
Physical Properties of Metals

 Malleable (can be hammered into thin
sheets and different shapes without
breaking)
 Ductile (can be drawn into a wire)
 Good conductors of heat and electricity.
( high thermal and electrical conductivity )
Metallic Bond and Properties of Metal

Malleability and Ductility …
In metallic bonding, the electrons do not belong to
any particular metal atom.
If sufficient force is applied to the metal, one layer of
atoms can slide over one another without disrupting
the metallic bonding.
This means that metallic bond is flexible and strong.
Therefore, metal can be hammered into sheets
(malleable) or drawn into wires (ductile) without
breaking.
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity …

The delocalised electrons in metals are mobile and
free to move away from a negative electrode to a
positive electrode when a metal is subjected to an
electrical potential.
Hence, metals have high electrical conductivity.
The mobile electrons can also conduct heat by
carrying kinetic energy from a hot part of the metal
lattice to a cold one ; high thermal conductivity.
The strength of the metallic bonds

■ Factors affecting metallic bond strength:
(a) number of valence electrons

- the greater the number of delocalised
electrons, the stronger the forces
(b) atomic radius

- the smaller the size, the greater the
attraction acting on the electron sea.
Boiling points in metals

Na Mg
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
e e e e e e ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
e e e e e e ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee
ee
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
Has one valence electron Has 2 valence electrons
Stronger metallic bond due to the

the electrostatic force acting size of Mg being smaller than Na
between positive ions and and the strong electrostatic force
free moving electrons form between +2 ions and the two
metallic bonds valence electrons,
Mg has higher boiling point than Na

Example:
Explain the difference in the boiling point of the
two metals given:
Magnesium – 11300 oC
Aluminum – 24500 oC
Answer
■ The cationic size of Al is smaller compared to
magnesium and its charge is higher (+3).
■ Mg has two valence electrons
■ Al has three valence electrons involved in the
metallic bonding.
■ The strength of metallic bond in Aluminium is
greater than that of Magnesium
■ Al has higher boiling point .
Trends in the melting or boiling point

• The melting or boiling point depends on the
types of intermolecular forces that exist
between the molecules.
Across the period 3

• Melting and boiling point of the 3rd period
elements
• The variation of melting and boiling point of

elements in the 3rd period can be discussed as:
(a) Metallic structure (Na to Al)
(b) Gigantic covalent structure (Si)
(c) Simple molecular structure (P to Ar)
a)Metallic structure (Na to Al)
Metal has positive metal ions attracted to the

electrons sea which form the metallic bonding.
Strength of metallic bonding is proportional to the

number of valence electrons.
The more valence e
Na
e e e
+
Na+
electrons, the stronger Na Na

+ +
e e e e
the metallic bond and Na +

Na +Na +
Na +
the higher the melting / e e e e

Na +
Na
boiling point
+
Na +
Na +
b) Gigantic covalent structure (Si)
Si has giant covalent structure.

Each silicon atom is tetrahedrally bonded to 4
other Si atoms by strong covalent bonds.
Covalent
bonds
Si atoms
Giant
covalent
structure
A large amount of energy is needed

to break the strong covalent bonds.
 Si has the highest boiling point.
c) Simple molecular structure ( P to Ar)

• The non-metal that exist as molecules of P4, S8,
Cl2 and Ar (monoatom).
• The covalent bond between the atoms is
very strong but the intermolecular force (Van
der Waals), is very weak.
• The strength of Van der Waals force is
proportional to molecular size (relative
molecular weight)
– Molecular size: Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
– therefore
melting / boiling point : Ar < Cl < P < S
Melting and boiling points down the group

Group 1
• The size increase, the attraction between
nucleus and electron sea become weaker.
• Therefore, less energy is needed to overcome
the attraction.
• Thus, melting and boiling point decrease.
Group 17
• The size of molecules increase, the
intermolecular forces (Van der Waals)
become stronger.
• Therefore, more energy is needed to overcome

the attraction
- Thus, melting and boiling point increase.

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CHAPTER 4

(b) State the octet rule and describe how atoms

(c) Describe the formation of the following bonds

(d) Draw Lewis structure of covalent species with

(e) Compare the bond length between single, double

(f) Determine the formal charge and the most plausible

(g) Explain the exception to the octet rule :

(h) Explain the concept of resonance using appropriate

● Valence electrons play an important role in the

Elements in the same group have the same

i. Ionic (electrovalent) bond

● Ionic compounds are formed when electrons

Sodium, an electropositive metal, tends to

Chlorine, an electronegative element, tend to

● These two processes occur simultaneously.

Ca: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

At the same time each chlorine atom to achieve

The electrostatic attraction formed ionic bond

By using Lewis structure, show how the ionic

Why should two atoms share electrons?

To gain stability by having noble gas

7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

single covalent bonds

1. Count total number of valence e- of atoms involved.

The shorter the bond length, the closer the

 The concept of formal charge is one way to

Formal Charge = Number of - Number of

Formal Charge (FC)

- The most plausible Lewis structure is one which…

- The sum of the FC on the atoms must equal zero for a

The most plausible structure is (2) because it has

Formal Charge allows the selection for the best

● Draw the possible Lewis structures for HNO2.

● Suggest the possible Lewis structure for H2SO4.

● Elements that can form incomplete octet are:

● This is due to elements being relatively small in

4.2 MOLECULAR SHAPE

The valence electron pairs around the

The repulsion may occur either between:

a) bonding pair & another bonding pair

Lone pair- Lone pair-bonding Bonding pair-

Decrease of the repulsion force

4.2.2 Shape of a molecule

■ Tips to determine the molecular shape :

B. Molecules with 3 bonding-pairs

C. Molecules with 4 bonding pairs

■ The molecular geometry is determined

■ Repulsion between electron pairs decreases

Stronger to weaker repulsion

■ Electrons in a bond are held by the attractive

■ Lone- pair electrons in a molecule occupy

Number of electron pair : 3

■ Class of molecules : AB2E

Number of electron pair : 4

■ Class of molecules : AB3E

Number of electron pair : 4

■ Class of molecules : AB2E2