Introduction To Artificial Lift

Artificial lift is to use additional energy, other than

natural energy, to produce fluids to the surface.

The decision of which artificial system to use

depend on the following:
Reservoir pressure
Well depth
Well potential
Produced fluid properties
The purpose of any artificial lift system is to create
a predetermined tubing intake pressure such
that the reservoir may respond and produce the
objective flow rate.

The design and analysis of any lifting system can

be divided into two main components:
The reservoir component (IPR) which represents
the wells ability to produce
The entire piping and artificial lift system
(includes separator, flow line, chokes, tubing
string,…etc)
Major Forms of Artificial Lift
Electronic
Controller
Lubricator Drive
Head

Control Catcher
Armored Equipment w/ Arrival
Sucker
Cable Sensor
Gas-Lift Rod

Rod Pump Pump Valve

Plunger
Floater/
Packer Bumper
Tubing Pump Electric Stator
Anchor Standing Spring
Motor Valve Tubing
(Optional) Stop
Rod Pump Submersible
Electric
Hydraulic Pump Gas Lift Plunger Lift Progressive-
Pump Cavity Pump
 Artificial Lift
Systems Comparison

Operating Condition Type Lift System

Beam ESP Gas Lift Hydraulic Jet
Sand Fair Poor Good Fair Good

Parafin Poor Good Fair Good Good

High GOR Fair Fair Excellent Fair Good
Crooked Hole Poor Fair Good Good Good
Corrision Good Fair Fair Good Good
High Volume Poor Excellent Good Good
Excellent
Depth Fair Fair Fair Excellent Fair
Scale Good Poor Fair Fair Good
Flexibility Volume Fair Poor Fair Excellent Good
Lufkin
Lufkinpumping
pumpingunit
unit(conventional
(conventionaltype)
type) C-912D-365-168
C-912D-365-168
Lufkin
Lufkinpumping
pumpingunit
unit(MII
(MIItype)
type) MII-912D-365-144
MII-912D-365-144
Beam Pump Design
The minimum amount of information which must be known,
or assumed, to determine even approximate loads and
pump displacements for sucker rod pumping unit
installation design must include:
1. Fluid level (net fluid, ft)
2. Pump depth, ft
3. Pumping speed, SPM
4. Length of surface stroke, in
5. Pump plunger diameter, in
6. Specific gravity of the fluid
7. The nominal tubing diameter
8. Sucker rod size and design
9. Unit geometry
With these factors, the designer should be
able to calculate the following:
1. Plunger stroke, in
2. Pump displacement, B/D
3. Peak polished rod load, Ib
4. Minimum polished rod load, lb
5. Peak (crank) torque, in-lb or ft-lb
6. Polished rod horsepower
7. Counterweight require, Ib
Sub-Surface Pumps
Once a decision has been made to
artificially produce an oil well with a sucker
rod pump, the size of the pump bore is the
first element which must be considered.

The quantity of fluid desired is the first

controlling factor. The next step is the
selection of the pump type
Selection of pump bore size
For a given pumping depth and volume of fluid to
be produced, there is an optimum size of pump
bore which will result in effective pump plunger
travel and maintain moderate speed of operation

If the plunger is too large, unnecessarily high loads

will be imposed upon the equipment.
On the other hand if the plunger is too small,
pumping speeds become too high and the
increased acceleration effects can result in
increased peak loads on the equipment
The basic factor in the selection of a suitable pump size
is the volume of fluid displaced by the pump per inch
of each stroke
This volume displacement will depend upon the
diameter of the pump bore

The total theoretical pump displacement can be

determined by:

PD = Ap (in.²) x Sp (in./stroke) x N (strokes/min.) x

min./day 1440
in³/ bbl 9702
The actual production rate at the surface, Q, may be less
than the total theoretical pump displacement due to
Volumetric Efficiency, Ev, of the pump

Ev = Q/PD or Q = Ev x PD

Volumetric efficiency can vary over a wide range but are

commonly from 70 to 80 %

Volumetric efficiency affected by pump slippage and fluid

properties such as gas content and foaming
characteristics of the fluid
An important consideration in many beam pumped wells
is fluid shrinkage between bottom hole pump and
surface.
Another form
PD = .1484 Ap Sp N
Where:
PD : total pump displacement, B/D
Ap : the cross sec. area of the pump plunger
(in²)
Sp : the effective plunger stroke, in.
N : the pumping speed in SPM
A pump constant, K, for any plunger size is
determined from:
K = .1484 Ap (or from table 2.1)

Thus, the pump displacement for a given

plunger size and for a given combination
of pumping speed and stroke can be
determined from:

PD = K Sp N
The selection of the optimum plunger size
for a desired production rate from some
given depth is important in obtaining high
efficiencies and in preventing
unnecessarily high loads on the rod string
and the surface equipment.

Table 2.2 can be used as a guide in

determining pump plunger sizes for
optimum conditions when surface stroke is
less than 74”. Such a table should be used
only for preliminary selections.
(example # 4)
The sucker rod string- general
considerations
The design of a pumping installation, including the
surface and subsurface equipment, requires the
selection of a suitable sucker rod string.
The main constituent of all sucker rods is iron in
addition to other elements must be added to
provide the necessary strength and other
properties
Sucker rods are available in several standards
sizes:1/2, 5/8, ¾, 7/8, 1.0 & 1 1/8” diameters
Design of the sucker rod string
For depths greater than about 3500 feet, it is
desirable to use a tapered rod string which
consists of different lengths of rods of
.different sizes
The smallest rods would be placed at the
bottom of the string; the largest rods would
be placed at the top of the string where the
load on the string is the greatest
There are two general methods of designing
a tapered sucker rod string:
1. Assign to each of the graduated sections
of the string its max. stress.
2. Design the string so the unit stresses are
equal in the top rod of each of the
different sized sections of the string
The second method is usually safer. Some
people prefer the first method, in which
the max. allowable stress is placed in the
top rod of the smallest (lowest) size. this
means that the rod breaks would occur in
the smallest rod.
The percentage of each size rod in a
tapered string can be determined from
table 2.7.

Several sizes of rods may be used in the

total string, depending upon the well
depth and operating conditions

The problem is to determine the length of

each rod size which should be used in
the total string.
The max. stress at the top of the entire rod
string will be the peak polished rod load
divided by the cross sec. area of the top
section of roads

Stress at the top = Wmax. / Atop

The calculated stress must never be greater

than the allowable working stress
(usually 30,000 psi), if it is, the rod string
must be redesigned. (Examp. # 5)
Modified Goodman Diagram

The previous equation of the stress at the

top gives the actual max. stress in the top
rod, based on the peak polished rod load
and cross sec. area of the top rod.

This stress must never exceed the max.

allowable stress for the particular grade of
rod being used.
For API Grade C rods, the max. allowable stress is
given by the relationship:
SA = (T/4 + M Smin) x S.F

= (90,000/4 + 0.5625 Smin) x S.F

OR
SA = (22,500 + 0.5625 Smin) x S.F

Where:
SA : max. allowable stress, psi
Smin : min. rod stress (either calculated or measured), psi
S.F : service factor (table 2.8)
The max. allowable range of stress must
also be determined for any rod string
design, according to the relationship:

ΔSA = SA - Smin

Where:
ΔSA : max. allowable range of stress, psi
Smin : calculated or measured MPRL
divided by cross sec. area of top rod,
psi
The influence of pumping motion on the rod
and structural loading of a beam type unit
In a beam rod pumping system, to lift the
load the polished rod must exert an
upward force greater than the “dead
weight” of rods and fluid. This force is
known as the “peak polished rod load
(PPRL)” and consists of two
components:
1. The static weight of rods and fluid
2. An additional force component
This additional force is often expressed as
percentage or fraction of the static weight
of rods and fluid and is referred to as the
“impulse” or “acceleration” factor.

For a given static weight of rods and fluid,

the greater the inertial component, the
faster the rod and fluid load is accelerated
upward; the lower the inertial component,
the slower the load is lifted.
The greatest force (peak polished rod load)
is required near the beginning of the
upstroke when the max. static load (rods
plus fluid) is being elevated with max.
acceleration

The min. polished rod load (MPRL) results

from the max. downward inertial force
component being subtracted from the
static weight of the rods.
The most commonly used method for
calculating peak and min. polished rod
loads is that of Mills

The Mills acceleration factor is given by:

α= (S N²) / 70,500
Where:
S : length of stroke, in
N : pumping speed, SPM
For conventional units:
PPRL = Wr + Wf + Wr α
= Wf + Wr (1 + α)

G Wr 62.4
MPRL = Wr (1 - α) – { }
Or 490
MPRL = Wr (1 – α – 0.127 G)
Where:
G : fluid sp. Gravity
Wr : static wt. of rods in air, lb
490 : density of steel rods, lb/ft³
Wf : weight of fluid, ib
For air balance units:
PPRL = Wf + Wr (1 + 0.7α)
MPRL = Wr (1 – 1.3α – 0.127 G)

For mark II units:

PPRL = Wf + Wr (1 + 0.6α)
MPRL = Wr (1 – 1.4α – 0.127 G)
The fluid load, Wf is the weight of the fluid column
supported by the net plunger area:

Wf = 0.433 GL (Ap – Ar)

Where:
L : length of rod string, ft
Ap : gross plunger area, in²
Ar : rod average cross- sec. area, in²

The weight of the fluid could be expressed as:

Wf = 0.433 G (L Ap – 0.294 Wr)
(Ex. # 6)
Effective plunger stroke

A considerable difference can exist between the

length of the stroke of the polished rod and the
actual length of travel of the pump plunger due
to of several factors:
1. Rod and tubing stretching and contraction
resulting from the imposition and release of
loads during the pumping cycle
2. Rod vibration effects
3. Plunger overtravel because of the dynamic
loads during the pumping cycle
The effect of rod and tubing stretch decreases the plunger
stroke, and the effect of plunger overtravel increases the
plunger stroke.

The effective plunger stroke is given by:

Sp = S + ep – (et + er)
Where
Sp : effective plunger stroke, in
S : polished rod stroke, in
ep : plunger overtravel , in
et : tubing stretch , in
er : rod stretch, in
Rod and tubing stretch – single rod size
Rod stretch is given by:
er = (12 Wf L) / (Ar E)
Where:
Wf : fluid load on the plunger, Ib
L : length of sucker rod string, ft
Ar : average cross sec. area of rods, in²
E : modules of elasticity for steel ( 30 x 10^6 psi)
Tubing stretch can be determined in a
similar manner

G (Ap – Ar) L² 5.02

et=
At E
Rod stretch – tapered strings

e1= (12 Wf L1)/ (A1 E)

e2= (12 Wf L2)/ (A2 E)
en= (12 Wf Ln)/ (An E)
Where L1, L2, …, Ln refer to the length of each
section which has rod cross sec. area of A1, A2,
…., An
The total rod stretch of the tapered string is then
written:
er= e1 + e2 + …+ en
= (12 Wf) / E [ (A1/L1) + (A2/L2) +….+ (An/Ln)]
Plunger overtravel
One must consider the elongation due to the rod
load in a dynamic system. This additional
elongation results from the dead weight of the
rods plus the load due to acceleration of the rod
string and is termed “ plunger overtravel”

ep= (40.8 L² α) / E
E = 30 x 10^6 psi
For tapered string
ep= 2.2 x 10^-11 S (L N)²
Where:
S : polished rod stroke, in
L : length of sucker rod string, ft
Calculation for surface equipment
It is important to look at the calculations and
considerations required in the design and
selection of surface equipment. There
are several factors which must be
considered:
1. Counterbalance
2. Torque on the gear reducer
3. Horsepower of prime mover
4. Speed reduction and engine sheave size
 Counterbalance
In a beam pumping system, the amount of
polished rod work needed to lift the fluid column
is required only during the first half of the crank
cycle, i.e., during the upstroke.

If a beam pumping unit were not counterbalanced

the total work required of the prime mover
would be performed during the upstroke when
the max. load of rods and fluid are being lifted.
During the last half of the cycle (the down
stroke) the prime mover would be coasting
while the force of gravity pulls the rods and
subsurface pump back down to their
starting position.

Consequently, if the beam pumping unit were not

counterbalanced, the prime mover would have to
do all of its useful work during the upstroke
portion of the cycle. This would require a
relatively large prime mover and speed (gear)
reducer.
To reduce the size of prime mover and gear
reducer and to load the gear box more
uniform, the system is furnished with
counterweights approximately equal to the
buoyant weight of the rods plus half the
weight of the fluid.
This means that the ideal counterbalance
required can be approximated by the
average load throughout the cycle.
This can be illustrated as follows:
Ci “ideal counterbalance effect”
= (PPRL + MPRL) / 2
Ci = 0.5Wf + Wr – Buoyancy
= 0.5 Wf + Wr (1 – 0.127 G)
Another form
Ci = 0.5Wf + W2

Where
W2 : buoyancy weight of rods, lb
On the upstroke, then the prime mover is
assisted by this counterbalance effect in
lifting the combined weight of buoyant rods
and fluid, resulting in an unbalanced force
equivalent to only half the fluid weight.
Thus, during the upstroke the prime mover
needs only to lift an unbalanced force
equivalent to half the fluid weight:
(upstroke load) – (counterbalance)=
unbalanced force
(W2 + Wf) – (W2 + 0.5Wf) = 0.5 Wf

On the downstroke, the return of the buoyant rods

is opposed by the counterbalance, leaving an
unbalanced force again equivalent to half the
fluid load.
Thus,
(counterbalance) – (downstroke load) =
unbalanced force

(W2 + 0.5 Wf) – W2 = 0.5 Wf

When properly counterbalanced, the
upstroke and downstroke work
requirements of the prime mover will be
approximately equal. Likewise, the torque
exerted on the gear reducer will be
approximately equal during the upstroke
and downstroke portions of the pumping
cycle.
(Ex. #8)
From a mechanical standpoint, when the
rods are elevated by the pumping unit
from the bottom to the top of the stroke, a
quantity of potential energy is stored in the
system. When the rods are pulled down by
the force of gravity from the top to the
bottom of the stroke, this same quantity of
potential energy is restored by elevating
the counterweights.
The total counterbalance effect at the polished rod is given
by:

Ct = Cs + Cw
Cw = Wc (d/r) (L1/L2)
Thus
Ct = Cs + Wc (d/r) (L1/L2)
Where
Cs : approximate structural unbalance (given by the
manufacture for a specific unit), lb
Wc : weight of counterweight used with the unit, lb
d : the distance from the crankshaft to the center of
gravity of the counterweight
r : the distance from the crankshaft to the pitman bearing
L1 : the distance from the saddle bearing to the tail bearing
L2 : the distance from the saddle bearing to the bridle
(Ex. # 9)
Torque consideration
Torque can be defined as a force acting at the end
of a lever arm, multiplied by the length of the
arm, tending to produce rotation and work.

Therefore, torque refers to the number of inch-

pounds of force applied to the crank by the low
speed shaft of the gear reducer; it is created by
the pitman pull due to well loads and by an
opposing effect from counterbalance moments
and by the prime mover.
Basically, the net crankshaft torque of a beam pumping unit
is the difference between well load torque and
counterbalance torque at any position of the crank.

This net crankshaft torque is the actual torsional load

“seen” by the prime mover and gear box during the crank
cycle.

The max. net torque is referred to as peak torque and is the

value to which the gear reducer is designed.

The peak torque generally occurs twice during each

revolution of the crank where the difference between the
well load moment and the counterbalance moment is
max. this normally occurs near the middle of the stroke
(S/2).
A simple form for approximate peak torque on the
upstroke is:

PTu = (PPRL – Ct) (S/2)

Where
PTu :peak torque on upstroke, in-lb
PPRL: peak polished rod load, lb
Ct : total counterbalance effect, lb
S : polished rod stroke, in

A simple form for approximate peak torque on the

down stroke is:

PTd = (Ct - MPRL) (S/2)

API unit ratings
C – 228D – 200 – 74
The first letter refers to a conventional unit
model
Where
A : air balanced
B : beam counterbalance
C : conventional
M : mark ll
The next three digits, 228, refer to the API peak
torque rating of the gear reducer in 1000 of in.-lb
( in this example the torque rating will be
228,000 in.-lb)

The letter D means that the gear reducer is of the

double reduction type

The next three digits, 200, refer to the max.

structure capacity (PPRL) in 100 of lb- in this
case, 20,000 lb PPRL

The last two digits, 74, refer to the max. stroke

length available, in inches, with that particular
unit.
API recommended design procedure
The API design procedure is a trial and error
method.
Three steps are generally required in the
procedure
1. A preliminary selection of components for the
installation must be made
2. The operating characteristics of the preliminary
selection are calculated by use of the formulas,
tables, and figures in the API RP 11L
3. The calculated pump displacement and loads
are compared with the volumes, load ratings,
stresses, and other limitations of the
preliminary selection.
The min. amount of information which must either
be known or assumed is as follows:
1. Fluid level, the net lift
2. Pump depth- L
3. Pumping speed, N
4. Length of surface stroke, S
5. Pump plunger diameter, Dp
6. Specific gravity of the fluid, G
7. The nominal tubing diameter and whether it is
anchored or unanchored
8. Sucker rod size and design
With these known data, the following design
factors can be determined:
1. Plunger stroke – Sp, in
2. Pump displacement – PD, B/D
3. PPRL, lb
4. MPRL, lb
5. Peak crank torque – PT, in.-lb
6. Polished rod horsepower, PRHP
7. Counterweight required- CBE, lb
Dynamometers and Dynagraphs

The dynamometers is a recognized tool for

measuring:
Polished rod load
Peak load
Peak torque
Horsepower requirements

The dynamometers can also be an effective aid as

a trouble shooting instrument to evaluate
pumping well problems prior to workover.
The proper use of dynamometers and the correct
interpretation of data obtained from them can
help assure proper installation of new pumping
units and can simplify the location of sources of
trouble in older units

The dynamometer card (load- displacement

diagram) is a continuous record of the resultant
of all forces acting on the polished rod at any
instant during the pumping cycle and is recorded
with respect to polished rod position.
The chief value of the polished rod dynamometer
is that it furnishes important information in
three major areas:
1. Loading of the surface equipment from the
polished rod to the prime mover
2. Rod loading
3. Down hole pump performance

Since the polished rod dynamometer provides a

continuous plot of polished rod force vs.
displacement, the following information is
developed:
1. Peak and min. pumping unit structural loads
2. Torsional load on the speed reducer and prime
mover
3. Work done by the polished rod against the
elevation of the fluid and against friction
4. Proper counterbalance
5. Peak and min. rod loads- rod stress, and load
range
6. Number of rod load fluctuations per crank
cycle
Each time the downhole pump makes a stroke, a
unique force signal is sent along the sucker rod
string at the speed of about 15,800 ft/sec. to the
surface where it is recorded by the
dynamometer.

Since each different bottom hole condition sends a

different force signal to the surface, an
experienced analyst can in some cases
determine downhole pump performance by
interpreting the distinctive profile of the
dynamometer card to detect some or all of the
following:
1. Condition of the traveling and standing
valves
2. Whether a gas or fluid pound exist
3. A gas locked pump
4. Excessive friction
5. Whether or not the well is pumped off
6. Whether the dynamometer card is an
overtravel or an undertravel card
Limitation of visual interpretation
In shallow wells where rod and fluid loads behave
like a concentrated mass, only a surface
dynamometer card is required to determine
loading and to diagnose trouble from the prime
mover to the bottom hole pump.

But in deep wells the elastic nature of the rod string

presents a more complex load pattern and
accurate visual diagnosis of down hole problems
from a surface dynamometer card is seldom
possible. Though much information can be
gained from visual interpretation of surface data.
 C.B

A2
D1
A1 D3
D2

L
Progressing Cavity Pump
Normal Operating Consideration

Casing size limits:

Normally no problem for 4.5” casing and
larger, but gas separation may be limited

Depth limits:
Poor: limited to relatively shallow depths,
possibly 5,000 ft
Progressing Cavity Pump
Normal Operating Consideration (cont.)
Intake capabilities:
Good: < 100 psi provided adequate
displacement and gas venting

Noise level:
Good: surface prime mover provides the
only noise
Progressing Cavity Pump
Normal Operating Consideration (cont.)

Obtrusiveness:
Good: low profile surface equipment

Prime mover flexibility:

Good: both engines or motors can be
used
Progressing Cavity Pump
Normal Operating Consideration (cont.)
Surveillance:
Fair : analysis based on production and
fluid levels only.
Dynamometers and pump-off cards not
possible to use.
Testing :
Good: well testing simple with few
problems
Progressing Cavity Pump
Normal Operating Consideration (cont.)

Time cycle and pump off controllers

application:
Poor : avoid shutdown in high viscosity /
sand producers.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration
Corrosion / scale handling ability :
Good : batch treating inhibitor down annulus
feasible.

Crooked / deviated holes:

Poor to fair: increased load and wear
problems. Currently, very few known
installations
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
Duals application:
No known installations.

Gas handling ability:

Poor if must pump any free gas.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
Offshore application:
Poor : may have some special application
offshore.

Paraffin handling capability:

Fair : tubing may need treatment. Rod
scrapers not used. Possible to unseat
pump and circulate hot fluids.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
Solids / sand handling ability:
Excellent : up to 50% sand with high
viscosity (> 200 cp) crude. Decreases
to < 10 % sand for water producers.

Temperature limitation:
Fair : limited to stator elastomer. At
present normally below 250 °F.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
High viscosity fluid handling ability:
Excellent : for high viscosity fluids with
no stator / rotator problems.

High volume lift capabilities:

Poor : restricted to relatively small
rates. Possibly 2,000 BFPD from
2,000 ft and 200 BFPD from 5,000 ft.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)

Low volume lift capabilities:

Excellent for < 100 BFPD shallow wells
that do not pump off.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)

Capital cost :
Low : increases with depth and larger
rates

Downhole equipment:
Good design and operating practices
needed. May have problems with
selection of appropriate stator
elastomer.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)

Efficiency (output hydraulic horsepower

divided by input hydraulic horsepower):
Excellent: may exceed rod pumps for ideal
cases. Reported system efficiency 50% to
70%.

Flexibility:
Fair: can alter speed. Hydraulic unit provides
additional flexibility but at added cost.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)

Miscellaneous problems:
May have limited service in some areas.
Because this is a newer method, field
knowledge and experience are limited.

Operating costs:
Potentially low, but short run life on stator
or rotor frequently reported.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
Reliability :
Good: normally overpumping and lack of
experience decreases run time.

Salvage value:
Fair / poor: easily moved and some current
market for used equipment.
Progressing Cavity Pump
Design Consideration (cont.)
System (total):
Simple to install and operate. Limited proven
design, installation, and operating
specifications and procedures. Each well is
an individual system.

Usage / outlook:
Limited to relatively shallow wells with low
rates. Used on less than 0.5% of U.S. lifted
wells. Used primarily on gas well dewatering.