COMPUTER NETWORKS

Presented By
Mr. B.Sashi Kanth
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE

Vignan’s Institute of Engineering for Women

Affiliated to JNTUK
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Vignan’s Institute of Engineering for Women, Visakhapatnam
Overview about Units in Computer Networks

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  Basics of Computer Networks
UNIT-I  Network Criteria Issues
Introduction to Computer  Network Topologies
Networks  OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Model

UNIT-II  Bandwidth limited signals

Physical Layer  Guided Transmission Media
&  Digital modulation
Data Link Layer  FDM, TDM CDM
 Data link layer design Issues
 Error Detection and Correction
 Data link Protocols
 Sliding Window Protocol

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 UNIT-III  Framing
Services provided to network  Error Correcting and detecting
layer codes
 Simplex stop and wait protocol
 Simplex stop and wait protocol
with noisy channel
 One-bit sliding window protocol

UNIT-IV  Static Channel Allocation

Medium Access Control Sub-  Dynamic Channel Allocation
Layer  ALOHA
 Wireless LAN Protocols
 MAC Sub layer Protocols
 Ethernet Performance
 802.11 Architecture and Protocol
 805.11 Frame Structure

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 UNIT-V  Store and forward packet
Network Design Issues switching
 Transport layer connectionless
and connection-oriented
 Routing algorithms
 Congestion Control algorithm
 Traffic throttling & Load shedding

UNIT-VI
Internet Transport Protocols
 UDP
&
 TCP
Application Layer
 DNS
 Resource Records
 E-Mail Architecture and Services
 Message Format and transfer
 Final Delivery of E-Mail

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 CONTENTS
 Definition of Computer Networks
 Data Communication system &Components of Comm. system
 Data Respresentation
 Data Flow in different ways.
 Network Criteria.
 Type of Connections.
 Topology and Different types of Topology.
 Categories of Networks.
 Internet Service Providers
 OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Model

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 What is Computer Networks?
• A computer network is a set of devices connected through
links. A node can be computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting
the nodes are known as communication channels.

Fig 1: Computer Network Connection

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 Data Communication System
• What is Data Communication system?

Fig 2: Data Communication System

Components of Data Communication
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Media
5. Protocol
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 Data Representation can be different ways i.e. Text, numbers,
images, audio and video format.
 Dataflow representation can be different ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full Duplex

Fig 3: Dataflow communication system

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 What is Network?
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
• Network Criteria is able to meet some issues like…
Performance Transit time & Response time

Reliability Accuracy of delivery & Recovery of link Failures.

Security Protecting data from Unauthorized access and

implementing policies & Procedures.

Table 1: Network Criteria Issues

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 Types of Connections
• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A
link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.
 Point to Point Connection.
 Multi-point Connection.

Fig 4: Types of Connections

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 What is Topology?
• Topology means the manner in which nodes are geometrically
arranged and connected is known as the Topology of the
network. (or) Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.
 Topology are two types:-
1. Physical Topology
2 . Logical Topology.
Physical Topology : It refers to network interconnection in
physical manner actually in wire or transmission media.
Logical Topology : It defines how the host access media to send
data.

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 Logical Topology

Fig 5: Logical Topology Connections

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 Bus Topology
• Bus Topology also called horizontal topology.
• A networking topology that connects networking components
along a single cable or that uses a series of cable segments that
are connected linearly. A network that uses a bus topology is
referred to as a “bus network.”

Fig 6: Bus Topology

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• Advantages
 Easy to use and easy to install.
 Costs are usually low
 Easy to add systems to network
 Great for small networks.
 A repeater can also be used to extend a bus topology network.
• Disadvantages
 Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
 Failure a cable affects all devices on the network.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus.
 Unmanageable in a large network
 If cable breaks, whole network is down

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 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it. A
signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.

Fig 7: Ring Topology

• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

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• Advantages:
 Easy to install.
 Easy to reconfigure. 
 Fault identification is easy. 

• Disadvantage:
 Unidirectional traffic. 
 Break in a single ring can break entire network. 
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network. 
 It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network. 
 Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load. 
 Cost of cable is more in ring network.

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 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To
connect n nodes in Mesh topology, we require n(n-1)/2 duplex
mode links.

Fig 8: Mesh Topology

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• Advantages:
 Troubleshooting is easy.
 Robust, If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system.
 Advantage of privacy or security.
 fault identification and fault isolation easy , Traffic can be
routed to avoid links with suspected problems. 

• Disadvantage:
 Required high amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports.
 Costly because of maintaining redundant links.
 Difficulty of reconfiguration.

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 Problem for Mesh Topology
1. A mesh network has 8 devices. Calculate total
number of cable links and IO ports needed.
 Solution:
Number of devices = 8 
Number of links = n (n-1)/2
8(8-1)/2 = 28 
Number of port/device = n-1 = 8-1 = 7

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 Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are
not directly linked to one another.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data
to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device.

Fig 9 : Star Topology

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• Advantages: 
 Less Expensive than mesh topology.
 Installation and configuration are easy.
 Less cabling is need then mesh.
 Robustness.
 Easy to fault identification & isolation.

• Disadvantage:
 If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
 Each device requires its own cable segment.
 Installation can be moderately difficult.

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 Hybrid Topology
• It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of
two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology
is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid
Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Fig 10: Hybrid Topology

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• Advantages
 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.

• Disadvantage
 Complex in design.
 Costly.

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 Categories of Networks
• 1. Local Area Network (LAN)
• 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• 3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 Local Area Network (LAN)

• Local area networks, generally

called LANs, are privately-owned
networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometres in
size.
• They are widely used to connect
personal computers and
workstations in company offices and
factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information.
• Traditional LANs run at speeds of
10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low
delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few Fig 11: LAN Connection through Hub
errors.

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 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• MAN is a network that spans a
city. The network consists of
various buildings interconnected
Via either wireless or fiber
optics backbones.
• A metropolitan area
network(MAN) is a large
computer network that usually
spans a city or a large campus.
The best-known example of a
MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities.
• MAN provides the transfer rates
Fig 12: Metropolitan Area Network
from 34 to 150 Mbps.

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 WAN (Wide Area Network)
• A network that spans
broader geographical area
than a local area network
over public communication
network. WANs
interconnect LANs, which
then provide access to
computers or file servers in
other locations.
• WANs provide instant
communications across
large geographic areas. Fig 13: Relation between hosts on LAN
and subnet

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 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
1. International Internet
Service Providers.
2. National Internet Service
Providers
3. Regional Internet Service
Providers

Fig 14: Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

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 Protocols and Standards
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax.
 Semantics.
 Timing.

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 LAYERED TASKS

Fig 15: Layered Task

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• Layers can offer two different types of service to the layers:
connection-oriented and connectionless.

Fig 16: Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-oriented

service.

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 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• This model is based on a proposal developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in
the various layers .
• The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection).

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OSI Reference Model Seven layers

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 Inter Connection between layers

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 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 OSI MODEL EXCHANGE DATA

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 Physical Layer
 Physical layer is the bottom layer of the OSI reference
model.
  The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel. The design issues have to do
with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

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 Physical Layer
 To transmit the stream of bits they must be encoded into
signal.

 The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit
rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level.

 In the physical layer the devices can be connected to point- to-

point connection or multi-point connection

 The physical layer data transmission can be any different ways

i.e. simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

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 Data-Link Layer
 Data Link Layer is divided into two sub-ways i.e.

 The LLC layer is responsible for flow control, error correction and
resequencing of information in connection-oriented and
connectionless services.

 The MAC Layer is responsible for providing gain access to the

medium.
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 Data-Link Layer

 The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.

 the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame.

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 Data-Link Layer
 Flow Control:
If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data
link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
Error Control:
To improve the reliability the Datalink layer adds a trailer which
contains the error control mechanism like CRC, Checksum etc.
 Access control:
When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.

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 Network Layer
 Network Layer key design issue how to route packets format
(Data) from source to destination.
 Network layer is responsible for functions of:
I. Logical addressing and routing of packets over the
network.
II. Establishing and releasing connections and paths
between two nodes on a network.
III. Transferring data, generating and confirming
receipts, and resetting connections.

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 Network Layer
 Logical addressing:
Data link layer implements physical addressing. When a packet
passes network boundary, an addressing system is needed to
distinguish source and destination, network layer performs these
functions. The network layer adds a header to the packet of upper
layer includes the logical addresses of sender and receiver.

The network layer also supplies connectionless and connection-

oriented services to the transport layer above it.

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 Transport layer
 The transport layer is responsible for providing reliable
transport services to the upper-layer protocols.

 Flow control to ensure that the transmitting device does

not send more data than the receiving device can handle.

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 Transport Layer
• Segmentation and reassembly.
– A message is divided into manageable units called as
segments. 
– Each segment is reassembled after received that
information at the receiver end. 
– To make this efficient each segment contains a sequence
number.
•  Error handling and acknowledgments to ensure that data is
retransmitted when required.
• Multiplexing for combining data from several sources for
transmission over one data path.

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 Session Layer
• The session layer allows users which enables sessions
between computers on a network to be established
and terminated.

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 Session Layer
– Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to
enter into a dialog. It allows the communication between
two processes to take place in either half- duplex (one way
at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

– Token management: preventing two parties from

attempting the same critical operation at the same time.

– Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to

add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of
data. Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to
continue from where they were after a crash.
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 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.

• Specific responsibilities of layer:

 Translation
 Encryption
 Compression
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 Application Layer
 The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are
commonly needed by users.
 One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web.

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 Application Layer
• Network Virtual Terminal: It is a software version of a
physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• File Transfer, Access, and Management:
• It allows a user to access files in a remote computer, retrieve
files, and manage or control files in a remote computer.
• Mail Services: It provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
• Directory Services: It provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Host-to-Network Layer
 Internet Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

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 HOST-TO-NETWORK LAYER:
• At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define
any specific protocol. It supports all the standard and
proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP internetwork
can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.
 INTERNET LAYER:
• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork
layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in
turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP,RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.
• Internetworking Protocol (IP): The Internetworking
Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless
protocol-a best-effort delivery service.
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 TCP/IP Protocol
• Address Resolution Protocol: The (ARP) is used to
determine the physical address when logical address is known.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol: The (RARP) is used
to determine the logical address when physical address is
known.
• Internet Control Message Protocol: The (ICMP) is a
protocol that is used to control the flow of message over
transmission medium by sending notification messages to the
sender.
• Internet Group Message Protocol: The(IGMP) is used to
facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a
group of recipients.

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• TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream,
in this context, means connection-oriented.

– User Datagram Protocol: UDP is the simpler of the two

standard TCP/IP transport protocols. It is a process-to-
process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.

– Stream Control Transmission Protocol: The SCTP

provides support for newer applications such as voice over
the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines
the best features of UDP and TCP.

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 THE APPLICATION LAYER:

– The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. On top of the
transport layer is the application layer.
 
– It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal
(TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP)

– The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a distant
machine and work there.

– The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine
to another.

– Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized
protocol (SMTP) was developed for it. 

– Many other protocols have been added to these over the years: the Domain Name
System (DNS)

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 Conclusion
 Definition of Computer Networks is known.
 Data Communication system &Components of Comm. system
 Data Respresentation
 Data Flow in different ways is known.
 Network Criteria is known.
 Type of Connections is explained.
 Topology and Different types of Topology is seen.
 Categories of Networks is explained.
 Internet Service Providers
 OSI Reference Model with diagrams is explained
 TCP/IP Model is explained.
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 Assignment Questions
1. What is layered architecture? Explain its design issue?
2. Describe the network types, topologies and switching
methods.
3. Compare the OSI and TCP/IP reference model.
4. Explain OSI reference model, with neat sketch.

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 FAQs – Short Answers
1. What is the significance of layered architecture?
2. What is point-to-point link transmission?
3. What are the responsibilities of physical layer?
4. Explain in detail about the MAN.
5. What is the difference between LAN and WAN?
6. List and explain the five components of a data
communication system.

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 FAQs – Long Answers
1. What is layered architecture? Explain its design issue?
2. Describe the network types.
3. Compare the OSI and TCP/IP reference model.
4. Explain OSI reference model, with neat sketch.
5. Explain about TCP/IP Model.
6. Explain different topologies models.

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 Interactions

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 THANK YOU

B.Sashi Kanth
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Vignan’s Institute of Engineering for Women
Affiliated to JNTUK
Visakhapatnam,
Department of Electronics and Communication Andhra Pradesh.
Engineering 63
Vignan’s Institute of Engineering forEmail
Women, Visakhapatnam
ID: sashis2@gmail.com