CHAPTER 7

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN CONFIGURATION
LAY-OUT
7.1. INTRODUCTION

After dimensions of the major components

have been obtained the subsequent steps in
the design process are:
(i) Development of a smooth, producible and
aerodynamically efficient external
geometry. Methods to obtain smooth
external geometry constitute lofting.
(ii) Installation of internal features such as crew
station, payload, landing gear and various
system.
(iii) Integration of propulsion system.
iv) Working out details such as wetted area, cross
sectional areas, volume etc. are obtained.

The final layout is a compromise between

a) Aerodynamic, structural, and functional requirements
b) Producibility, maintainability, environmental and
other considerations.

We briefly discuss these considerations in this

chapter. The material is based on Chapter 8 of
Ref.1.11 and chapter 4 of Ref.1.13.
It may be added that various aspects of lofting
and ways to obtain areas and volumes etc., are
discussed in chapter 7 of Ref.1.11 .
7.2. AERODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
A poorly designed external shape of the
airplane could result in undesirable flow
separation resulting in low lift to drag ratio
and , large transonic and supersonic wave
drag.

Based on section 8.2 of Ref.1.11, the

following remarks can be made
(i) Minimization of wetted area is an important
consideration as it directly affects skin
friction drag and in turn parasite drag. One
way to achieve this is to have smallest
fuselage diameter and low fineness ratio.
However proper space for payload, ease of
maintenance and tail arm must be
considered.
(ii) To prevent flow separation, the deviation of
fuselage shape from free stream direction
should not exceed 10-12 degree.
(iii) Proper fillets should be used at junctions
between a) wing and fuselage b) fuselage
and tails c) wing and pylons etc.,
(iv) Base area viz. unfaired, rearward facing
blunt surface should be minimum.
v) Canard, if used, should be located such that
its wake does not enter the engine inlet as it
may cause engine stalling.
vi) Area ruling: The transonic wave drag is
reduced with a smooth distribution of the
area of cross section of the airplane in
planes perpendicular to the flow direction.
 s
The area of cross section of the fuselage s
generally varies smoothly. However when the
wing is encountered there is an abrupt change
in the cross sectional area. This is alleviated
by reduction in area of cross section of
fuselage in the region where wing is located.
Such a fuselage shape is called the coke-
bottle shape.
Fig.7.1 illustrates this method. Fig.7.2 shows
the wave drags of a) a body of revolution b) a
wing body combination without area ruling
and c) a wing body combination with area
ruling. Fig.7.3 presents a practical application
of this principle.
DESIGN FOR LOW WAVE DRAG

Fig 7.1 Design for low wave drag

(from Raymer, 1992 p 158)
CDwave=0.0035 0.0085 0.0045

Fig 7.2 ADVANTAGE OF THE USE OF AREA-RULE

Fig 7.3 SAAB VIGGEN
(From Observer’s book
of aircraft, 1971 edition
p. 191)
7.3. STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Primary concern in the design process is
to obtain an airplane with low structural
weight. This is achieved by provision of
efficient load path i.e. structural elements by
which the opposing forces are connected.
It may be recalled that the structural
members are of different types namely
a) Struts which take tension
b) Columns which take compressive load
c) Beams which transfer normal loads
d) Shafts which transmit torsion
e) Levers which transfer the load along with
change of direction.
The most efficient way of transmitting
the load is when the force is transmitted in
an axial direction.
 In the case of airplane the lift acts
vertically upwards and the weights of various
components and payload act vertically
downwards. In this situation the sizes and
weights of structural members are minimized
or the structure is efficient if opposing forces
are aligned with each other. This has led to
the flying wing or blended wing-body concept
in which the structural weight is minimized as
the lift is produced by the wing and the entire
weight of the airplane is also in the wing.
Fig.7.4 Blended-wing-body concept
 However in a conventional airplane the payload
and systems are in the fuselage. wing produces the
lift and as a structural member it behaves like a
beam. Hence to reduce the structural weight the
fuel tanks, engines, landing gears are located on
the wing, as they act as relieving load.
Reduction in number of cutouts and access
holes, consistent with maintenance requirements ,
also reduces structural weight.
Remark :
Equation 5.1 shows that the weight of the wing
is reduced with high thickness ratio, low aspect
ratio, no sweep and high taper ratio. Some of these
requirements are in conflict with aerodynamic
considerations.
• This has led to different wing geometries for
airplanes with different flight Mach number.
For example, low speed airplanes have
moderate aspect ratio, high thickness ratio,
taper ratio between 0.3 to 0.5 and no sweep.
High subsonic jet airplanes have moderate
aspect ratio, moderate thickness ratio,
moderate sweep and taper ratio around 0.2.
Supersonic airplanes have highly swept or
delta wings. For efficient performance at
various flight Mach numbers, variable sweep
has also been used.
7.4 Crashworthiness:
During a crash, parts of airplane would break
loose and fly forward. Hence heavy items should
not be located behind and above the passengers.
Landing gear and engines nacelles may get
ripped away during a crash. Hence, they should
be located such that they do not rip open fuel
tanks. Lower portion of fuselage should be such
that it does not dig into ground.
See also Ref.1.11, sec 8.9 and
Ref.1.13,chapters 4 and 5. In the case of
passenger airplanes emergency exits and
evacuation system need to be provided.
7.5 Producibility or manufacturing
considerations:
The cost of an airplane is generally
proportional to its weight. However, factors
like material chosen, fabrication processes
(machining, forging, molding, welding,
finishing etc.) tooling required and assembly
man-hours also influence the cost. Hence ease
of fabrication is an important consideration in
design of an airplane.
Some of the suggestions( Ref.1.11,chap.8) are :
(i)   There should be commonality of parts e.g.
left and right landing gear, left and right halves
of tail, ailerons etc., should be identical.
(i)    Forgings are expensive and should be
reduced in number.

(ii)     Installations of internal components,

hydraulic lines, electrical wiring, cooling ducts
need careful layout to avoid excessive cost.

(iii)  For convenience an airplane is built from

sub-assemblies. This needs incorporation of
suitable subdivisions and allocation of parts to
different sub-assemblies. This requires an
adequate knowledge of structural design,
fabrication techniques and principles of
operation of major subsystems.
(iv)  Use of CAD/CAM techniques require
standardization of drawings and processes.

(v) Components made of FRP materials are

lighter but need altogether different
manufacturing techniques than the metal
components.
7.6 Maintainability
Airplane being a costly vehicle the general
policy is to carry out periodical maintenance
and not weight for break down. Different parts
of the airplane have different service life.
Hence, inspection and maintenance are carried
out after a specified number of hours of flight.
To carry out these, proper access doors need to
be provided. However, such cutouts increase
structural weight and a proper compromise is
required. Civil airplanes also require ground
servicing, the lay out of the airplane should
enable low turn-around  time for items like re-
fuelling, fresh water replenishment, re-supply
of food, toilet servicing, cabin cleaning and
cargo/baggage handling. see Fig.7.5
Fig.7.5 Ground service requirements
( from Ref.1.13,chapter 3 )
7.7 Environmental consideration :
In recent years the factors like aircraft noise,
emissions and ecological effects have acquired due
importance and begun to influence airplane layout.
Based on Ref.1.13,chapter 4 the following remarks
can be made
7.7.1 Aircraft Noise :
Noise during the arrival and departure of the
airplane affects the community around the airport.
In 1994 , ICAO (International Civil Aviation
Organization) and later FAR (Federal Aviation
Regulation) prescribed limits on noise level at three
different points near the airport (see
Ref.1.13,chapter 4 for details).
 The noise is generated by
a) the engines ,
b) parts of the airframe like control surfaces, high lift
devices which significantly change the airflow direction.
c) Projections in airflow like landing gear and spoilers.
Considerable research has been carried out to
reduce the engine noise. High by-pass ratio engines
with lobed nozzle have significantly lowered the noise
level.
Noise level inside the cabin has to be minimal.
This is achieved by suitable noise insulation. Further
the clearance between cabin and the propeller should
not be less than the half of the radius of the propeller.
7.7.2 Emissions :
Combustion of the fuel in an engine produces
carbon dioxide, water vapor, various oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide, unburnt
hydrocarbons and sulphur dioxide(SO2). The
components other than carbon dioxide and water
vapor are called pollutants. ICAO has prescribed
acceptable limits of pollutants (grams of pollutant
per Kg of fuel burnt) .
The thrust setting changes during the flight
and hence the emission levels have to be
controlled during landing, take-off and climb
segment up to 3000 ft. At high altitudes the NOx
components may deplete ozone layer. Hence
supersonic airplanes may not be allowed to fly
above 50000 ft (15 km ) altitude.
 s
It may be noted that cruising altitude for
Concorde was 18 km. Improvements in engine
design have significantly reduced the level of
pollutants.
The amount of pollution caused by air
transport is negligible as compared to that
caused by road transport, energy generation
and industry. However the aircraft industry
has always been responsive to the ecological
concerns and newer technologies have
emerged in the deign of engine and airframe.
7.8. Considerations for Military
airplanes
These airplanes need special considerations like radar,
infrared and visual detectability, and vulnerability.

7.8.1 Radar detectability :

A radar installation consists of a transmitter
antenna that sends a directed beam of
electromagnetic wave and receiver antenna which
picks up the faint radio waves that bounce off the
object. The extent to which an object returns
electromagnetic energy is a measure of its “Radar
cross section (RCS)”. Following may be remarked.

(i) Radar signal strength is inversely proportional to the

4th power of distance of the target. It takes substantial
reduction in RCS to obtain operational benefit.

(ii) RCS depends on “look angle” i.e. the direction from

threat radar.
(iii) The factors that contribute to RCS are

(a) Flat surfaces perpendicular to incoming radar beams

for example flat sides of fuselage.
(b) Leading edges.
(c) Inlet and exhaust cavities of engine.
(d) Discontinuities in surface.

(iv) Stealth Technology :

The ways to reduce RCS are referred to as stealth

technology. This calls for proper shaping of the
airplane,- buried engines (no nacelles), -flying wing;
intakes on top of the airplane, exhaust with 2 –D
nozzles. Use of radar beam absorbing materials like
composites and special paints also reduces RCS.(see
Fig.1.10 for B-2 stealth bomber)
7.8.2 Infrared detectability:

Guidance of air-to-air and ground-to-air missiles

is many times based on seeking source of
infrared (IR) radiation. The sources of IR are
(i) Engine exhaust
(ii) Hot parts of airplane. Heating being
caused by aerodynamic heating, at high
speeds.
(iii) Solar IR radiation reflected by skin,
cockpit, etc.

 
 The Radiation from engine exhaust can be
reduced by
(i) Having bypass engine
(ii) Increased mixing and lower temperature by
using 2-D nozzle.
 
7.8.3 Visual Detectability:
Visual detection depends on the size of the
airplane and color. Aircraft can also be
detected in night by glow of engine exhaust.
Camouflage schemes are used to avoid
detection.
7.8.4 Vulnerability:
Vulnerable area or component is that which when
struck by a weapon will cause the aircraft to be
lost. Some considerations to reduce vulnerability
are
(i) Fuel should not be stored over or around
engines and inlet ducts.
(ii) Hydraulic lines and reservoirs should be away
from engine.
(iii) Engine bays, fuel bays & weapons bay should
have fire suppressing systems.
(iv) In twin engined airplane there should be
enough separation between engines to prevent
damage to the engine which is not damaged.
(v) Critical components, crew & passengers
should not be placed within 5 degrees arc of
propeller disc.
(vi) There could be redundancy in important
systems like hydraulic, electrical, flight control
and fuel systems.

See Ref 7.1 for further details on combat

survivability.
Reference:

1) Ball, R.E” The fundamentals of aircraft combat

survivability analysis and design”, AIAA
Educational series, vol<> 1985 .