REVIEW SESSION IN

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR

AGRICULTURIST (LEA)

Prepared by: DARWIN M. CACAL, R.A., M.Sc.

DARWIN M. CACAL, R.A., M.Sc.
 DARWIN M. CACAL, R.A., M.Sc.
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
Doctorate Degree : Benguet State University
- La Trinidad, Benguet
- Doctor of Philosophy in Agronomy
- On-going
Master’s Degree : Isabela State University- Cabagan Campus
- Garita, Cabagan, Isabela
- Master of Science in Agricultural Science
- Major in Crop Science
- August 6, 2016 - August 28, 2020
Tertiary : Honorato Gumiran Baquiran College (HGBC)
-Tumauini, Isabela
- Education Units
- November 2018-March 2019
: Isabela State University- Cabagan Campus
- Garita, Cabagan, Isabela
- Bachelor of Agricultural Technology
- June 2014-April 2016
: Isabela State University- Cabagan Campus
- Garita, Cabagan, Isabela
- Diploma in Agricultural Technology
DARWIN M. CACAL, R.A., M.Sc.
 CROP PROTECTION

-Entomology
-Plant Pathology
-Weed Science
-Pesticide Calculation
ENTOMOLOGY

Prepared by: DARWIN M. CACAL, RA, MS

PRODUCT FROM
INSECT
Sericulture
 Shellac
Is a resin secreted by the female lac bug, on trees in the
forests. It is processed and sold as dry flakes (pictured) and
dissolved in alcohol to make liquid shellac, which is used as
a brush-on colorant, food glaze and wood finish.
 COCHINEAL
Is a red dye
produced from
the dried and
powdered
bodies of the
cactus mealy
bugs
 Introduction
ENTOMOLOGY:
• Greek: Entoma = Insects,
Logos = Study
• Is the science that deals with the
study of insects including their close
relatives, their economic importance,
both beneficial and as pests and if
pests, control measures
Did you know that insect….
• belongs to Phylum Arthropoda
which comprises 80% of all
animal species and
it is characterized by having
joints (segments) a.k.a. “arthro”
and poda or foot
• under Class Insecta which
comprises 75% of all known
animal species
Characteristics of ARTHROPODS
Arthro= joint/segment
Poda = foot/appendage

• Segmented bodies
• Bilaterally symmetrical
• Chitinous exoskeleton
• Paired jointed appendages
 Phylum Arthropoda
Greek: Arthron = joint, pous = foot
1. Arachnida – 4 pairs of legs (mites, spiders,
scorpions, etc.)
2.Crustacea – 5 pairs of legs, (shrimp, lobster, etc.)
3. Chilopoda – 16 pairs of legs (centipede, etc.)
4. Diplopoda – 213 pairs of legs (millipede, etc.)
5. Hexapoda (Insecta) – 3 pairs of legs (beetles, flies,
bees, ants, wasps, aphids, thrips, moth, etc.)
Arthropod Classes
CLASS ARACHNIDA –
adults are without
antennae and with 4 pairs
of legs.

Dust mites tick

Mites
Ticks
Spiders
Scorpions
spider scorpion
Arthropod Classes
CLASS CHILOPODA –It has
centipede flattened body and bear a pair of
legs per body segment.
 Centipedes a.k.a. “alupihan”.
CLASS DIPLOPODA- It is
cylindrical worm with 2 pairs of
legs/segment and have the habit of
coiling up like a ring.
 Millipedes (“singsing-ita”.
millipede
Arthropod Classes

CLASS CRUSTACEA –
Adult of this group possess two
pairs of antennae and variable
number of legs.
 Crayfish
 Shrimps
 Crabs
 Sowbug (babuy-babuyan)
 Copepod (water flea/dapiya)
Arthropod Classes
CLASS INSECTA/HEXAPODA
– adult bear 3 pairs of legs, a pair
of antennae, with simple and
compound eyes with varied mouth
types and composed of 3 body
regions
• Butterfly/Moth
• Dragonfly
• Earwigs
• Praying mantis
• Beetles
• Bugs, etc.
 THE CLASS INSECTA

It divided into orders on the basis

of the structure of the wings and
mouthparts, the metamorphosis
and on various other
characteristics.
 Subclass Apterygota
(Primitive wingless insect)
 Thysanura

(Silverfish / Firebrats / Bristle tail)

Greek "thysano-" meaning fringed "ura" meaning tail.

Body relatively flat, tapered

and often covered with scales.
 Compound eyes is small or absent
Antennae long, thread-like and
multisegmented.
Abdomen with ten complete
segments

2
2
 Diplura
Double tail
The name Diplura, derived from the Greek words
"diplo-" meaning two and "ura" meaning tails.

•These small, eyeless arthropods.

•They have a pair of long beaded
antennae (moniliform) on the head .
•A pair of segmentedsensory structures
(cerci).
•Long and slender, or forceps-like in
appearance .
•Tarsi one-segmented .
2
3
 Protura
Telson tail
The name Protura, derived from the Greek words
"proto-" meaning first (or original) and "ura" meaning
tail.

Antennae absent.
Compound eyes absent.
Front legs directed forward
(probably sensory in function).
Abdomen with 9-12
complete segments.
Cerci and abdominal
filaments entirely absent.
2
4
 Collembola
(Springtails)
The name Collembola, derived from the Greek
"coll" meaning glue and "embol" meaning a wedge.

•Compound and simple eyes

are absent.
•Filliform Antennae present,
•Abdomen 6-segmented .
•Body frequently clothed
with scales .

2
5
 Zoraptera
(Zorapterans / Angel Insects)
Name, derived from the Greek "zor" meaning pure and "aptera"
meaning wingless.

•Moniliform Antennae
9- segmented.
• Mouthparts is chewing.
•Wings often absent,
with reduced venation when present.
•Long stylus,
short unsegmentes circi.

26
 Mallophaga
Biting Lice / Bird lice / Chicken lice

•Chewing or biting type.

•Head is broad.
•Antennae short filliform; 3-5
segmented.
•Clinging legs.
•Eyes reduced or absent
•Tarsi 1- or 2-segmented, most
species have two small claws.

27
 Siphonapte
ra
Fleas
The name Siphonaptera is derived from the Greek words
"siphon"
meaning a tube or pipe and "aptera" meaning wingless.
•Short setaceous antenna.
•Body bilaterally flattened
•Mouthparts piercing sucking.
•Large
bristles
(ctenidia)
often present on head or
thorax .
•Hind 30
Subclass Pterygota
(Winged insect)
 Ephemeroptera
(Mayflies)
Greek "ephemera" meaning short-lived,
"ptera" meaning wings.

 Antennae short and Setaceous.

Four to nine pairs of leaf-like or
fan-like gills along the sides of the
abdomen .
Front wings large, triangular
hind wings smaller, fan-shaped
Three long filaments at rear of
abdomen .
3
2
 Odonata
(Dragonflies and Damselflies)

Greek "odonto-", meaning tooth, refers to the

strong teeth found on the mandibles of most
adults.
 Antennae short ,Setaceous.
 Compound eyes large.
 Four membranous wings.
 Chewing mouth part.
Legs are used either as a basket for
catching prey or as grapples for
clinging to emergent vegetation.

33
 Plecoptera
(Stoneflies)

Greek "pleco" meaning folded and

"ptera"meaning wing, refers to the pleated hind
wings.

• Antennae long, filiform.

• Front wings long and narrow.
• Body flattened.

34
 Grylloblattodea
(Rock Crawlers / Icebugs)

Greek "gryll" meaning cricket "blatta"

and meaning cockroach.

• Antennae slender,
filiform .
• Mouthparts is chewing.
• Body cylindrical
• Tarsi 5-segmented .
• Secondarily wingless .

35
 Orthoptera
(Grasshoppers / Locusts Crickets / Katydids)

Greek "ortho" meaning straight and "ptera" meaning

wing.

 Antennae filiform.
 Slender, thickened front
wings fold back
over the abdomen to
protect membranous,
hind wings.
Chewing mouthpart.
 Hind leg is jumping
leg. 36
 Phasmida
(Walkingsticks / Stick Insects / Leaf Insects)
Greek "phasm" meaning phantom.

•Antennae short filliform.

•Mouthparts is chewing.
•Body long, cylindrical.
•Meso and meta thorax
is long in Stick insect
while broad in leaf
insect.

37
 Dermaptera
(Earwigs)
Greek "derma" meaning skin and "ptera" meaning
wings.

 Active at night.
 Chewing mouthpart.
 Antennae slender, long filliform .
Forewings short,
thick,veinless and leathery .
Hind wings membranous
and folded under forewings.

38
 Embioptera
(Webspinners / Embiids)

•Greek "embio" meaning lively and "ptera" meaning

wings.

 Antennae slender, filiform .

 Mouthparts is chewing.
Tarsi 3-
segmented,bearing silk
glands .
 Asymmetrical circi.

39
 Dictyoptera
(Cockroaches / Waterbugs / Mentid)
The name Blattodea is derived from "blatta", the Greek word
for cockroach.
• Antennae slender, filiform .
•Much of the head and thorax is covered and
protected dorsally by a large plate of
exoskeleton (the pronotum).
• Legs adapted for running.
•Front wings thickened; hind wings
membranous, pleated .
• Stylus present at 9 segment.

15
 Isoptera
(Termites / White Ants)
Greek "iso" meaning equal and "ptera" meaning
wings.

•Head large and cylindrical or

small and round.
• Antennae long moniliform.
•Compound eyes present.
•Two pairs of
membranous wings.

41
 Psocoptera
Psocids / Barklice / Booklice
The name Psocoptera is derived from the Greek "psokos" meaning
rubbed and "ptera" meaning wings.

•Head prominent, with

Lonf filiform antennae.
•Narrow "neck" between head and
thorax.
•Two pairs of wings; some species
are wingless.
• Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented

42
 Siphonculata
Sucking Lice / Mammal Lice / Human Lice

•Head conical, with

suctorial mouthparts
•Antennae short filliform, 3-
to 5-segmented
•Eyes reduced or absent
•Tarsi usually 1-segmented with
a single large claw.

43
 Heteroptera/Hemiptera
True Bugs, bugs

The name Heteroptera, derived from the Greek

"hetero- " meaning different and "ptera" meaning
wings.

•Long filliform Antennae with 4-

5 segments.
•Proboscis 3-4 segmented,
arising from front of head .
•Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented.
•Circi absent.

44
 Homoptera
Plant hoppers / Tree hoppers / /white fly / Aphid / Jasid

 Short setaceous antenna.

 Piercing sucking mouthpart.
Membranous or hard
throughout of forewings.
 Circi absent.

45
 Thysanoptera
Thrips
The name Thysanoptera, derived from the Greek
"thysanos" meaning fringe and "ptera" meaning wings.
•Antennae short moniliform, 6-10
segments.
• Body cylindrical or spindle-shaped.
•Front and hind wings slender, rod-
like, with a dense fringe of long hairs.
Many species are secondarily wingless.
• Rod like stripy wings.
• End of abdominal tube present
called oviposter.

23
 Neuroptera
Lacewings / Antlions / Dobsonflies / Alderflies / Snakeflies

The name Neuroptera is derived from the Greek word

"neuron" meaning sinew and "ptera" meaning wings.

•Antennae long setaceous.

•Chewing mouthparts.
•Front and hind wing membranous,
similar in size.
•Extensive branching of venation in
all wings.

24
 Coleoptera
Beetles / Weevils
The name Coleoptera, derived from the Greek words "koleos"
meaning sheath and "ptera" meaning wings.
Coleoptera (beetles and weevils) is the largest order in the class Insecta.
• Most beetles
have a
hard, dense
exoskeleton
• Chewing
mouthparts
(sometimes located at the tip of a beak) .
• Front wings (elytra) are hard and serve
as covers for the hind wings; meet in a
line down the middle of the back .
• Hind wings large, membranous, folded
beneath the elytra .
• Tarsi 2- to 5-segmented. 25
 Strepsiptera
Twisted-wing parasites / Stylopids / Strepsipterans
The name Strepsiptera, derived from the Greek "strepsi"
meaning turned or twisted and "ptera" meaning wings.

• Large fan-shaped hind

wings; small club-like front
wings.
•Forewing form haltere.
•Vestigial and
chewing mouthparts.
•Antennae 4- to 7-
segmented; often with lateral
branching.
•Flabellate antenna. 49
 Mecoptera
Scorpionflies / Hangingflies
The name Mecoptera, derived from the Greek words
"meco" meaning long and "ptera" meaning wings.

•Head elongate with slender chewing

mouthparts.
• Front and hind wings narrow, elongate, and
similar in size; crossveins numerous.
• Tarsi 5-segmented
•Males of some species have enlarged external
genitalia held recurved over the abdomen like a
scorpion's tail.
• Raised abdomen.
• Long narrow similar wings

50
 Diptera
True Flies / Mosquitoes / Gnats / Midges

The name Diptera, derived from the Greek words "di"

meaning two and "ptera" meaning wings.

Antennae filiform,
stylate,
or
aristate .
 Mouthparts suctorial.
 Mesothorax larger
than
pro-
or
metathorax .
51
 Lepidoptera
Butterflies / Moths
The name Lepidoptera, derived from the Greek words "lepido"
for scale and "ptera" for wings.
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) is the
second largest order in the class Insecta.
•Mouthparts form a coiled tube (proboscis)
beneath the head.
• Antennal type:
 Butterflies: Clavate
 Moths: thread-like, spindle-shaped, or
comb-like
•Front wings large, triangular; hind wings
large, fan-shaped.
•Body and wings covered with small,
overlapping scales.
30
 Trichoptera
Caddisflies
The name Trichoptera, derived from the Greek words "trichos"
meaning hair and "ptera" meaning wings.

 Setaceous antennae.
 Mouthparts
reduced
or vestigal.
 Two
pairs
of
wings
clothed with long hairs. 53
 Hymenoptera
Ants / Wasps / Bees / Sawflies / Horntails

The name Hymenoptera is derived from the Greek words

"hymen" meaning membrane and "ptera" meaning wings.
•Chewing mouthparts - except in bees where
maxillae and labium form a proboscis for
collecting nectar.
• Compound eyes well developed.
• Tarsi usually 5-segmented.
• Triangular stigma in front wings.
• Hind wings smaller than front wings.
• Geniculate antenna.
• Sucking/Licking/Chewing mouthpart.

54
INSECTS:
Latin: “Insect-us”
= from verb insecare = to cut into and refers to the
major segments or divisions of an insect body
 Introduction
• SIGNIFICANCE OF INSECTS:
• Are the dominant group of animals on our
planet
• Are the most numerous
• Most number of species described – 3 times
as many as in the rest of the animal
kingdom
• Very adaptive, occur practically everywhere
on earth
• Have lived on earth for about
350 Million
years (Human 2 Million)
• Insects are of great importance
for the balance of global
ecosystem – terrestrial food
chains depend on insects
• Pollinate the vast majority of
the worlds species
of flowering plants
• SIGNIFICANCE OF INSECTS:
• Insects recycle nutrients – contribute to
ecosystem function
• Example 1: Termites remove more
plant material from the African
Savannahs than all the teeming herds
of wild beast together
• Example 2: In tropical forests ~ 15 % of
total leaf area are eaten by insects, all
other animals together ~ 3 %

Crop Protection 51 – Economic

Entomology
• Insects may be small in size but because of
their number (10 million million million or 1 x
1019) their impact is enormous
• Some very valuable to human
• honey – bees; silk – silkworm; dyes – aphids;
• food – locusts, dragonflies, caterpillars; rich
source of protein, minerals
• beneficial insects controlling potential pests –
wasps, beetles, etc.
Introduction
• SIGNIFICANCE OF INSECTS:
• Some very harmful to human
• carrier of disease (Viruses,
Bacteria, fungi, etc.) responsible
for innumerable plant, animal and
human diseases (Malaria,
Dengue, typhus, river blindness,
yellow fever); Malaria still kills
one person every 12 seconds
worldwide
• poisonous – sting allergies, spiders, scorpions,
etc.
• causing losses in agricultural crops – beetles,
aphids, moth, bugs, etc; an estimated 15 to 20
% of all crops worldwide lost to insects
• Example: A swarm of desert locusts containing
thousands of millions of individuals and
extending over hundreds of square miles may
eat 2 - 4 times as much food in a day as would
be consumed by the human population of
New York or Manila in the same time
 Introduction
• CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS:
• Possess 1 pair of antennae in different
shapes, sizes and No. of segments
• Possess 1 pair of compound eyes
• Their body can be divided into three
regions – Head, Thorax and Abdomen
• Winged with either 1 or 2 pairs of wings,
wings as addition to legs

Crop Protection 51 – Economic

Entomology
• They breath through a number of tiny holes in
the body wall, have no lungs but tiny branching
tubes, transporting oxygen directly to the tissues
• Heart and blood unimportant for transport of
oxygen
• Smell with their antennae
• Some taste with their feet
• Some hear with special organs in their
abdomen, antennae or legs
• Their skeleton is located on the outside, limits
their size, some of the larger insects very slender
Introduction
• PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF INSECTS:
• Cold blooded animals, body temperature follows
closely the outside temperature, can withstand
adverse climatic conditions
• Reproductive powers of insects can be tremendous,
depends on no. of eggs laid by the female, the length
of a generation and proportion of females per
generation
• Drosophila has 25 generations per year, 100 eggs
per generation, 50 % females. After one year ~10 41; if
packed tightly together, 1000 to inch3 , would form a
ball with 96 Million miles in diameter, a ball nearly
extending from the earth to sun
• Complex and fascinating social behaviour
(dance of bees, etc.)
• Defense mechanisms against enemies (playing
dead, camouflage, resemble other animals,
dead twigs, eye-spots on the wings –
butterflies, use of chemical warfare – stink
bugs, mildly toxic bodyfluids – ladybird beetles,
biting, stinging, hairs, etc.)
• Unusual strength (lifting up to 50 times of its
own weight, some even up to 800 times)
 Introduction
• “INVENTIONS” OF INSECTS:
• Many insects do things which we regard as
strictly an activity of civilized man
• Creating nets to capture prey (spiders)
• Hornets make paper from wood pulp
• Insects are constructing elaborate buildings,
tend gardens
• Some insects have cold light and chemical
warfare
• Solved problems of aerodynamics and celestial
navigation
• Many insects have elaborate navigation
systems involving chemicals (pheromones –
fruit flies), sound (cicadas, beetles), behavior
(honey bee dance), light (fireflies)
• Use of jet propulsion ( intake and expulsion of
water to aerate their gills in the rectum –
dragonfly nymphs)
• Honey bees are “air-conditioning” their bee
hives
• Ants farm other animals (aphids)
Classification
• Classification according to Feeding habits:
• Saprophagous – feeding on dead organic matter
• General scavengers – e.g. cockroaches
• Humus feeder – springtails
• Dung feeder – dung beetle
• Restricted to dead plant tissue – termites
• Restricted to dead animal tissue – Larder beetles
• Carrion feeders – flesh flies

• Zoophagous – feeding on living animals

• Parasites – living on other animals
• Living on warm blooded vertebrates – chewing
and sucking louse
• Blood sucker - mosquitos
Classification
• Classification according to Feeding habits:
• Phytophagous – feeding on living plants
• Leaf feeders – e.g. butterfly larvae, grasshoppers
• Leaf miners – flies
• Stem and root borer – e.g. beetles, butterfly larvae
• Root feeders – e.g. white grubs, cricket
• Juice sucker – e.g. leafhoppers, aphids, thrips
• Gall maker – e.g. gall wasps
• Fruit feeder – e.g. Tephritid flies

• Entomophagous – feeding on other living insects

• Parasites – e.g. wasps, flies
• Predators – dragonflies, spiders, coccinilid beetles,
longhorned grasshopper, Praying mantis, etc.
Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology
Classification
• A systematic study of the animal kingdom necessitates some
scheme of arranging them into recognizable groups, or
classifying them
• Classification followed by zoologists is one based primarily on
structural characteristics. Animals which have certain
structural characters in common are placed into one group
• Animal kingdom divided into several major groups called Phyla
(Phylum = singular)
• Each Phylum is further subdivided into smaller groups called
classes, classes are further divided into orders, families,
genera and species
• Naming of animals - Nomenclature:
• Animals have scientific name and often common names
• Scientific name used by scientists, used throughout the
world, allows exact identification, every animal taxon has
one

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

Classification
• Common names are vernacular names
• Many animals lack them because they are to small or
seldom encountered in certain areas

• Main categories commonly used in Scientific Nomenclature

arranged in order of rank
• Phyla (Phylum)
• Classes (Class)
• Orders (Order)
• Families (Family)
• Tribes (Tribe)
Genera (Genus)
Species (Species)

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

Classification
• Scientific Nomenclature:
• Scientific naming of animals follows certain rules, which are
outlined in the international code of zoological nomenclature
• Scientific names are latinized
• May be derived from any language or from names of people or
places
• Most names derived from latin or greek words, and usually
refer to some characteristics of the animal group named
• Scientific name is binominal, consists of two words (The genus
name and the species name)
• Always printed in italics if typewritten
• Names of species and subspecies are followed by the name of
the author, the person who described the species, the authors
name is not in italics

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

Classification
• DIFFERENT ORDERS OF INSECTS:
ORDER COMMON NAME METAMORPHOSIS MOUTHPARTS
1. ORTHOPTERA Grasshopper incomplete chewing
Cricket, Walking
Stick, Cockroach
Praying Mantis
2. THYSANOPTERA Thrips incomplete rasping sucking
3. ODONATA Dragonflies and incomplete chewing
Damselflies
4. ISOPTERA Termites incomplete chewing
5. HEMIPTERA Bugs, Aphids, incomplete piercing
Mealybug, White sucking
Fly, Cicada,
Scale Insects,
Psyllids,
Plant-hoppers

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

ORDER COMMON NAME METAMORPHOSIS MOUTHPARTS

6. PHTHIRAPTERA Parasite lice, incomplete Biting, piercing,

louse sucking
7. SIPHONAPTERA Fleas incomplete Sucking,
piercing
8. NEUROPTERA Lacewings, Ant- incomplete Biting, chewing
lion, Alderflies
9. LEPIDOPTERA Butterflies complete Siphoning
Moth Larvae: chewing
10. DIPTERA Flies complete Sponging,
Mosquitoes sucking
11. COLEOPTERA Beetles complete Biting, chewing
12. Bees, wasps, complete Biting, chewing,
HYMENOPTERA ants lapping

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

Classification
• KEYS:
• Standard technique for separating taxa at
any level through “keys” (Taxonomy)
• Series of questions about characters of
the insect that proceed from very general
to very specific points, focusing more
and more precisely until one arrives at an
identification
• Good key should be easy and fast to use
and should work in the majority of cases
• Use of illustrations helpful, especially
when errors can be made
Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology
 The Insect Integument
-the insect integument is important
to terrestrial insects because it
keeps water out from absorbing
and prevents loss of water from
body fluids.
The Structure of the Insect Integument
Layers of the Body Wall
Cuticle – composed of
chitin, proteins, other
pigments
Epidermis – cellular
layer; lies beneath and
secretes the cuticle
Basement membrane
– thin non-cellular
layer beneath the
epidermis
GENERAL STRUCTURE
OF AN INSECT
General Structure of an Insect
THE SURFACE OF THE
INSECT’S BODY CONSISTS
OF

Sclerites = hardened plates

separated by
Sutures = membranous areas that
permit movement of various parts
of the body and its appendages
General Structure of an Insect
Basic morphological
characteristics
 6-legged
 3 tagmata (body regions)
 2 antennae
 1 or 2 pairs of wings, if any
 2 eye types
General Structure of an Insect
THE THREE
BODY
REGIONS
Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology
Head Appendages

Antennae
Mouth
Eyes
1. Head
• Anterior capsule-like
body-
region that bears the
eyes,
antennae and the
mouthparts
• Shape of the head varies
considerably between
different insects
• Common feature: heavily
sclerotized – wall of the
head is very hard
 Types of Head Structure

According to position of
mouthparts
Adaptations to different habitats
or ways of feeding
Types of Head Structure
HYPOGNATHOUS
More primitive condition;
head vertical and mouthparts
directed downward and the
cranium corresponds to the
body segments
Condition wherein the
mouthparts are at the right
angle to the body axis
– grasshopper, cockroach,
mantids, larvae of moths and
butterflies
Types of Head Structure

PROGNATHOUS
Having the head
horizontal and the jaws
directed forward. The
cranium is turned upward
on the neck so that the
mouthparts are directed
forward
Mouthparts is in line to
the body axis
– carabid beetle, termites
and ground beetle
Types of Head Structure

OPISTHOGNATHOUS/
OPISTHORRYNCHUS
 With a posterior ventral position
of the mouthparts resulting from a
deflection of the facial region
- Homoptera(Cicada, Plant
hoppers, leaf hoppers and bugs )
Types of Eyes
• Simple Eyes- eye consisting of a single ocellus. Such
eye are found in adult insects and in the larvae of
hemimetabolous insect.
•Compound Eyes- large, located on
the head of the adult; made up of a
few to several thousand individual
eye units, which generally see only
light and dark areas. They are
actually made up of multiple
ommatidia and each one is capable
of picking up visual information.
ANTENNAE

Paired segmented appendage

located on the head usually
between or below the
compound eyes
Sensory in function (touch,
Antenna used for tasting food smelling, tasting, listening) :
detect odor molecules in the
air; humidity detectors;
detect sounds (mosquitoes);
gauge air speed while in
flight (flies)
 -used in mating in fleas and
Mating collembolans Collembola
 Antennae function almost exclusively in
sensory perception.
 To serve as secondary sexual characters in
male Lepidoptera and male mosquito.
 To find it’s way.
 To detect the danger.
 To find the food.
 To find the opposite sex.
 To communicate with each other e.g. Ants.
 It bear olfactory organs ( smell) e.g.
Housefly
 It bears chordotonal organs (sound
hearing) e.g. Male Mosquito.
 To detect humidity
 To hold the opposite sex at the time
of mating.
 To catch the prey e.g. Mantids.
Structure/ Parts of Insect Antenna
It is first segment or basal or proximal
segment of antennae are articulate to the
head capsule.

It is often conspicuously longer than the

other segments.
• It is second segment that follows scape
• Specialised sensory organ known as Johnson’s
organ situated on pedicel with insect can
hearthe sound.
• In honey bee, wasps pedicel forms the pivot
between scape and flagellum.
It is third division formed by a single or many segments

Flagellum is further divided into three parts,

Ring joints: It is basal segment of flagellum are small and

ring like form.
Club: It is swollen or enlarged distal segments of the
antenna.
Funicle: segments between ring joints and club.
 TYPES OF
ANTENNAE
MOUTHPARTS OF INSECTS

COMPOSITION
 Mandibles
 Maxillae
 Labrum
 Labium
 Hypopharynx
Part of Mouthparts:

1. Labrum ( Upper lip): -situated below the clypeus on the front side
of the head
-Situated in front of the other mouth part structures
2. Mandibles:- Paired heavily sclerotized un-segmented jaws
- Lying immediately behind the labrum
- Bear both cutting and grinding ridges (chewing
mouthparts)
- Elongate or stylet-like (sucking mouthparts)
3. Maxillae: - Paired structures lying behind the mandibles
- Are segmented
- bear feeler-like organs (palps)
4. Labium (Lower lip)- Is a single structure lying behind the maxillae
- Divided into several segments
- Bearing feeler like structures (palps)

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

CHEWING

 Most generalized condition; with

heavily sclerotized mandibles that
move sideways and can bite off
and chew particles of food

 Grasshopper, Dragonfly, Beetles

TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

CHEWING- LAPPING
 Mandibles and labrum are of the
chewing type and used for
grasping prey or molding wax or
nest material; maxilla and labium
developed into a series of
flattened elongate structure used
to probe deep into blossoms
(flabellum)
 Bees
TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

PIERCING-SUCKING

 Presence of a tubular, usually

jointed beak enclosing several
needle-like stylets

 Bugs, Mosquito, Cicada

TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

SIPHONING

 Galea of maxillae greatly

elongated and joined to form a
slender hollow tube which is
coiled up under the head when not
in use (proboscis)

 Butterfly
TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

SPONGING
 End of labium specialized into a
sponge-like organ (labellum)

 flies
TYPES OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS

RASPING-SUCKING

 Characterized by a short stout,

assymetrical conical structure
located ventrally at the rear of the
head; 3 stylets
 Thrips
 2. Thorax
> The middle region of the insect body
> Bears three pairs of legs and the wings
> Connected to the head by a membranous neck
region = cervix
> Function = movement
Segments of the thorax:
• Prothorax
• 1st pair of segmented legs
• Mesothorax
• 2nd pair of segmented legs
• 1st pair of spiracles and wings (forewings)
• Metathorax
• 3rd pair of segmented legs
• 2nd pair of spiracles and wings
Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology
Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology
THORAX APPENDAGES

Legs Wings
INSECT WINGS
 Wing Development
• Apterous (without wings)

• Brachypterous (Reduced
wings)

• Macropterous (Well developed

wings)

• Wing pads (In nymphs of

Exopterygota)
• Archedictyon (Irregular network of veins)
• Nodus (Thick short cross vein in the midded of
costal margin)
• Pterostigma (Pigmented spot in costal margin)
• Marginal Setae
(Thrips)

Archedictyon
 Cells of Wings

• Open Cells (Area extends to the margin of

the wing)
• Closed Cells (Area completely
surrounded by veins)
Types of Wings of Insect
1. Elytra
2. Fringed
3. Hemelytron
4. Membranous with scales
5. Haltere
6. Membranous
7. Tegmen
Types of Insect wings
ELYTRA

 Hard sclerotized front wings

serving as protective cover for
membranous hindwings

 BEETLES – Coleoptera
Types of insect wings
HEMELYTRA

 Front wings that are leathery or

parchment –like at the base and
membranous at tip

 TRUE BUGS -Hemiptera

Types of insect wings

TEGMINA

 Front wings that are completely

leathery or parchment-like in
texture

 GRASSHOPPERS; MANTIS-
Orthoptera
Types of insect wings
HALTERE

 Small, knob-like structure serving

as gyroscopic structure

 FLIES – Diptera
Types of insect wings
FRINGED WINGS

 Margins of slender front and

hindwings with long fringes of
hair

 THRIPS - Thysanoptera
Types of insect wings

MEMBRANOUS WINGS

 Soft, flexible, transluscent or

transparent with prominent wing
veins
 BEES (Hymenoptera) ,
DRAGONFLIES ,
 DAMSELFLIES (Odonata)
 LACEWING (Neuroptera)
Types of insect wings
MEMBRANOUS WITH SCALES

 Wings covered with powder-like

substance

 BUTERFLIES,MOTHS,SKIPPERS
(Lepidoptera)
INSECT LEGS
LEGS OF INSECTS
SEGMENTS
 coxa
 trochanter
 femur
 tibia
 tarsus
 pretarsus
 ungues
 arolium
 empodium
 pulvilli
 Typical Leg
1. Coxa

 1st basal segment

 Large, elongated.
 Attached with body by
coxal corium membrane
2. Trochanter

Small, Triangular
segment, Fixed
with femur
3. Femur

 Long and thick

segment
 Fishbone
provided
muscles on it
 Narrows towards
apex
 Femasulcus`
 Brunners organ
on it
4. Tibia

 Long, slender

 Spines over it

 Strong spurs at
apex
5. Tarsus

 3 segmented
 1st segment longer than
2nd
 3rd segment largest
 Plantulae present
 Claws present
 Arolium
Abdominal Prolegs

Some insect larvae, such as caterpillars, have pairs of short

fleshy legs on one or more abdominal segments. These legs may
have tiny hooks or barbs (called crochets) that serve to grip the
substrate. Abdominal prolegs never occur in an insect’s adult
stage. They are a unique larval adaptation derived from a
completely different embryological origin than the thoracic legs.
Types of Insect Legs

Cursorial Fossorial
Raptorial Pollen-Collecting
Natatorial Stridulatorial
Saltatorial Scansorial/Clasping
Types of Legs

CURSORIAL /
GRESSORIAL(Running/
Walking legs) – with slender and
long tibiae

 Cockroach
Type of Legs

RAPTORIAL (grasping legs)

- Forelegs armed with opposing
spines and spurs

 Praying mantis
Type of Legs

NATATORIAL (Swimming legs)

- Segments of forelegs flattened
and with long hairs

 Diving beetles; water beetles

Type of Legs

POLLEN GATHERING
- Hind tibiae clothed
with hairs

Bees
Type of Legs

FOSSORIAL (Digging legs)

- Forelegs with scraper-like parts

 Mole cricket
Type of Legs

SALTATORIAL(Jumping
Legs)
- Enlarged hind femur

 grasshoppers
Type of Legs

STRIDULATORIAL Leg
- Series of pegs on femur of hind
legs (rubbed against edge of wing
covers to produce sound)

 Field cricket
Type of Legs

SCANSORIAL (Clinging
Legs)
- End of tarsus of prothoracic leg is
a hook-like structure used for
clinging to host

 Human louse, Hog louse

 3.ABDOMEN
Appendages and Structures found in the Abdomen

Functions of Abdomen
• Reproduction
• Protection
• Digestion
Abdomen
3rd region found just
behind the thorax; contains
the organs of digestion and
reproduction; may have 11
or lesser # of segments;
last 3 segments represent
the ♂s clasper or
copulatory organ and ♀s
ovipositor; each segment
bearing a pair of spiracles
The abdominal segments

No. of segments
11-segmented (silverfish/mayflies)
6- or 7- segmented (beetles/flies)

Sclerites
dorsal = tergum
ventral = sternum
joined together laterally by a pleural membrane
Appendages/Structures found in the Abdomen

SPIRACLES

-in many adult insects, found near

pleural membrane on each side of
1st 8 segments
-some spiracles permanently
closed but still represented by a
dimple in the sclerite
End of the Abdomen
-ANUS (rear opening of
the DS) nestled
between 3 protective
sclerites:
 Dorsal epiproct
 Pair of lateral paraproct
 Near the anterior margin of
the paraprocts is the CERCI
(touch or tactile receptors)
Insect’s genital opening lying
below the anus
FEMALE = paired appendages
on the 8th and 9th abdominal
segment forming the
OVIPOSITOR
: guide the egg as it comes out
from the female
MALE = genital opening
enclosed in a tube-like
AEDEAGUS which enters the
female’s body during copulation
The external genitalia may
include other sclerites:
subgenital plate
claspers
styli

These facilitate mating or egg-

laying

The structure differs from species

to species to the extent that it
usually prevents interspecies
hybridization and also serves as a
valuable identification tool
Other Appendages/Structures found in the Abdomen

1. Pincers in Dermaptera
2. Median caudal filament in
primitive orders (D, T, Ephe)
3. Cornicles in aphids
4. Abdominal prolegs
5. Sting (modified ovipositor) in
aculeate Hymenoptera
aculeate – pointed or
armed with sharp points or
armed with a sting
Other Appendages/Structures found in the Abdomen

6. Abdominal gills: along sides

or end of abdomen
7. Furcula (jumping organ) on
ventral side of 5th abdominal
segment - Collembola
8. Tenaculum (clasp) – 3rd
abdominal segment - Colle
9. Collophore (fleshy peg-like
organ ; regulates absorption
of water from environment)
on ventral side of 1st abd
segment - Collembola
Methods of collecting
and preserving insects
Collecting insects
• Relative collecting techniques:
• Provides data about presence or absence of certain insects
and indicates how abundant one species is relative to
another, area of sampling not known
• Butterfly nets, hand nets = aerial nets, not used in thick
vegetation, just on top of it
• Sweep nets = designed for thrashing through vegetation
• Can not be used if vegetation is wet
• Only semi-quantifiable
• Fast flying insects will escape
• Sweeping will not catch leafmining or stem-boring
insects, or insects living to close to the ground
• Beating trays = umbrella held upside down
• For sampling from trees

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

Collecting insects
• Relative collecting techniques:
• Light traps = UV radiation attracts various insects
• Mainly male insects respond
• Used to trap moths
• Some insects also repelled by light
• Very unspecific
• Flight intercept trap = net
• Catches insects in flight
• Sticky traps or window type traps
• Color traps = yellow, blue, etc.
• Pitfall traps =
• Water pan traps =
• Lures and baited traps =
• Fogging and vacuuming =

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology

 Collecting insects
• Absolute collecting techniques:
• Hand searching =
• Suction sampling = with pooter –
aspirator or D-Vac
• Emergence traps and rearing =
• Sieving and extraction techniques =
• Canopy techniques =

Crop Protection 51 – Economic Entomology