AEC & RI Pub. No.

37/2023

Practical Manual

REE 201 Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Sources – Solar

and Wind Energy (2+1)

Course Teacher
D. Ramesh
Professor and Head

Course Associate
B. Prabha
Research Associate

Department of Renewable Energy Engineering

Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore – 641 003

2023
 TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PRACTICAL RECORD

Certified that this is bonafide record of work done by

………………………………………………… I.D.No. ………………………… in the
course REE 201 Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Sources – Solar and
Wind Energy (2+1) during the IV Semester of 2023-24.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER COURSE TEACHER

Name of the Student :

I.D.No. :

Year and Semester :

No. Date Name of the Exercise Date of Initials of the

 Submission teacher

1. Problems on solar time – basic earth sun angles

Study and problems of hourly, daily and

2.
monthly solar radiation using pyranometer

3. Sun path diagram

Problems on Thermal losses and efficiency of

4.
flat plate collectors

5. Testing of solar water heater

6. Testing of natural convection dryer

7. Study of photovoltaic cell characteristics

8. Sizing of SPV systems

Design of SPV system for small Grid connected

9.
application

Wind Energy conversion calculations for power

10.
relating parameter and velocity

Weibull distribution model and wind rose

11.
diagram

12. Problems on Wind resource assessment

13. Design of rotor blade for horizontal axis wind mill

14. Design of water pumping windmill

15. Wind power Project Appraisal

16. Problems on wind energy economics

Ex. No.: 1
Problems on Solar time – Basic Earth Sun angles
Date:
Local Solar Time
Time as measured by the apparent diurnal motion of the Sun is called Local Solar
Time. It is the time that would be shown by a sun dial.
LST = LCT + E
LCT – Local Civil Time
E – Equation of time, minutes
Local Civil Time can be derived from the standard time as below:
LCT = Standard time ± (Lst - Llocal) x 4
Therefore, LST = Standard time ± (Lst - Llocal) x 4 + E
(+ sign for west and – sign for east)
Where, Lst – Standard meridian for the local time zone
Llocal – Longitude of the location in degrees (+ sign for west and – sign for east)
For India, negative sign is taken and hence
LST = Indian standard time - (Lst - Llocal) x 4 + E
Indian standard time is based on longitude 82.5° E, which passes through Mirzapur,
near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. It is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT), now called the Universal Coordinated Time (UTC).
Equation of time correction
Day → 1 8 15 22
Month ↓ Min : Sec Min : Sec Min : Sec Min : Sec
January -(3 : 16) -(6 : 26) -(9 : 12) -(11 : 27)
February -(13 : 34) -(14 : 14) -(14 : 15) -(13 : 41)
March -(12 : 36) -(11 : 0) -(9 : 14) -(7 : 12)
April -(4 : 11) -(12 : 07) -(0 : 15) 1 : 19
May 2 : 50 3 : 31 3 : 44 3 : 30
June 2 : 25 1 : 15 -(0 : 09) -(1 : 40)
July -(3 : 33) -(4 : 48) -(5 : 45) -(6 : 19)
August -(6 : 17) -(5 : 40) -(4 : 35) -(3 : 04)
September -(0 : 15) 2 : 03 4 : 29 6 : 58
October 10 : 02 12 : 11 13 : 59 15 : 20
November 16 : 20 16 : 16 15 : 29 14 : 02
December 11 : 14 8 : 26 5 : 13 1 : 47

Basic Earth Sun angles

The position of a point P on the Earth’s surface with respect to the sun’s rays is
known at any instant by using basic earth sun angles viz., latitude (Φ), hour angle (ω) and
the sun’s declination (δ).
Latitude (Φ)
It is the angle between the line joining the point of location to the centre of the Earth
and its projection on the horizontal equatorial plane. When the point is north of the Equator,
the angle is positive and when south it is negative.
Hour angle (ω)
It is the angle measured in the Earth’s equatorial plane, between the projection of line
joining the point of location to the centre of the Earth and the projection of the line extending
from the centre of the Sun to the centre of the Earth. Hour angle can be expressed
mathematically as: ω = 15 (12-LST).
Sun’s declination (δ)
It is the angle between the line extending from the centre of the Sun to the centre of
the Earth and the projection of this line upon the Earth’s equatorial plane. The Sun’s
declination, in degrees, for any given day may be calculated using the approximate equation
of Cooper,

=
Where, n is the day of the year
Derived solar angles
Altitude angle (α)
It is the vertical angle between the projection of Sun’s rays on the horizontal plane
and the direction of Sun’s rays.
Zenith angle (θz)
The angle between the beam from the Sun and the vertical and is the complementary
angle of the Sun’s altitude angle.
Solar azimuth angle (γs)
It is a horizontal angle measured from the north to the horizontal projection of Sun’s
rays. This angle is positive when measured westwise.
 Horizontal surface Inclined surface

Slope (s)
It is the angle between the plane surface, and the horizontal. It is taken to be positive
for surface sloping towards south and negative for surfaces sloping towards north.
Surface Azimuth Angle (γ)
It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due south and the projection
of the normal to the surface (inclined plane) on the horizontal plane. It can vary from -180° to
+180°. By convection, the angle will be taken negative, if the projection is east of south and
positive if west of south for Northern hemisphere and vice-versa for southern hemisphere.
Zero point being south.
Relationship between basic Earth Sun angles and derived angles
cos θz = sin α = cosΦ cosω cosδ + sinΦ sinδ
sin γs = secα cosδ sinω
Sunrise/ Sunset hour angle and Day length for horizontal surface
ωs = cos-1 (-tanΦ tanδ)

Td = ωs

Td = cos-1 (-tanΦ tanδ), hours

Sunrise/ Sunset hour angle and Day length for inclined surface
ωs = cos-1 [-tan(Φ-s) tanδ]

Td = cos-1 [(-tan(Φ-s) tanδ), hours

Angle of incidence on surfaces sloped to N or S
θT = cos-1 [cos(Φ-s) cosω cosδ + sin(Φ-s) sinδ]
s is positive when slope is towards the south
Example 2.1
Determine the L.S.T. and declination at Bhopal (latitude 23 o 15' N, longitude 77o 30' E)
at 12.30 IST on June 19.
Solution
Local Solar Time is given by the equation
LST = Indian Standard time – (Lst - Llocal) x 4 + Equation of time
= 12h 30' – (82o 30' – 77o 30') x 4 – 1' 01″
= 12h 30' – (5 x 4) – 1' 01″
= 12h 30' – 20' – 1' 01″
= 12h 8' 59″
Declination δ can be found by

=
= 23.43o = 23o 25' 56″
Example 2.2
Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate collector on
December 1, at 9:00 a.m. solar time for a location at 28o 35' N. The collector is tilted at an
angle of latitude plus 10o with the horizontal and is pointing due south.
Solution
Since the collector is pointing due south, γ = 0
Declination on December 1 (n=335) is

=
= – 22.11o
Hour angle ω corresponding 9.00 hour
ω = 15 (12 – 9) = 45o
Angle of incidence
θT = cos-1 [cos(Φ-s) cosω cosδ + sin(Φ-s) sinδ]
= cos-1 [cos(28.58o– 38.58o) cos45o cos(– 22.11o) + sin(28.58o– 38.58o) sin(– 22.11o)]
= cos-1 [cos(10o) cos45o cos(22.11o) + sin(–10o) sin(– 22.11o)]
= cos-1 [cos(10o) cos45o cos(22.11o) + sin(10o) sin(22.11o)]
= cos-1[0.6451 + 0.0653] = 44.72o
Example 2.3
Determine the altitude and azimuth angle at 3 pm (IST) on June 15, for Bombay (18 o 54' N,
72o 49' E). For the same location, determine the angle of incidence over a south facing
surface with tilt angle of 15o with the horizontal. Also calculate the hour of the sunrise and
the length of the day.
Solution
Altitude angle
Local Solar Time,
LST = Indian Standard time – (Lst - Llocal) x 4 + Equation of time
= 3h 0' – (82o 30' – 72o 49') x 4 – 0' 09″
= 3h 0' – (9o 41' x 4) – 0' 09″
= 3h 0' – 38' 44″– 0' 09″
= 2h 21' 7″
Hour angle ω corresponding 9.00 hour
ω = 15 (12 – 14h 21' 7″) = 15 x - 2.351944° = - 35.27916o = 35o 161' 45″
Declination on June 15 (n=166) is

=
= 23.31o = 23o 18' 51″
Considering horizontal surface θ = θz
cos θz = cosΦ cosω cosδ + sinΦ sinδ
= cos18.9 cos23.31 cos(- 35.27916) + sin18.9 sin23.31
= (0.946 x 0.9184 x 0.8163) + (0.3239 x 0.3957)
= 0.7092 + 0.1281 = 0.8373
cos θz = sin α = 0.8373
α= sin-1 (0.8373) = 56.856o = 56° 51' 21″
Solar Azimuth angle
sin γs = sec 56.856 cos23.31 sin(-35.27916)
= 1.829 x 0.9184 x (- 0.5775) = - 0.97
γs = sin-1 (-0.97) = - 75.93o = - 75° 55' 48" = 284° 4' 12" East of North
Angle of incidence over a south facing surface with tilt angle of 15 o with the horizontal
Since the collector is pointing due south, γ = 0
Angle of incidence
 θT = cos-1 [cos(Φ-s) cosω cosδ + sin(Φ-s) sinδ]
= cos-1 [cos(18.9o -15o) cos23.31o cos (-35.27916o) + sin(18.9o -15o) sin(23.31o)]
= cos-1 [cos(3.9o) cos23.31o cos(35.27916) + sin(3.9o) sin(23.31o)]
= cos-1 [(0.9977 x 0.9184 x 0.8163) + (0.068 x 0.3957)]
= cos-1[0.7479 + 0.0269] = 39.213o = 39° 12'
= 39° 12' 46.8" = 39° 12' 47"
Sunrise hour
ωs = cos-1 (-tan18.9o tan 23.31o)
= cos-1 (-0.3424 x 0.4308)
= 98.48o
Sunrise hour = 12 – (ωs/15) = 12 – 6.5653 = 12 - 6 h 33' 55" = 5h 26' 5"
Length of the day

Td = ωs = x 98.48 = 13.13h = 13h 7' 48"

Problems
1. Determine the local solar time corresponding to 10.00 a.m. I.S.T. on February 8 for a
location in India at 87.5o east longitude.
2. Determine the local solar time or local apparent time corresponding to 14.30 hrs (IST)
on July 1, at Bombay (latitude 19o 07' N longitude 72o 51' E). (E= -4')
3. Determine the local solar time and declination at Ahmedabad (Longitude 72 o 40' E,
Latitude 23o 00' N) corresponding to 14.30 IST on December 15. (Take E = 5' 13″).
4. Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate collector
pointing due south located in New Delhi (28o 38' N, 77o 17' E) at 9:00 hour solar time on
December 1. The collector is tilted at an angle of 36 o with the horizontal. Also calculate
the day-length.
5. Calculate the Sun’s altitude angle and azimuth angle at 7:30 a.m. solar time on August
1 for a location at 40o N latitude
6. Determine the solar time and azimuth angle at for sunrise on August 1 for a location at
40o N latitude
7. What is the zenith angle and azimuth angle of the Sun of July 4, at 4:30 p.m. IST at a
location latitude at 38o 51' N and longitude 77o E. Given Equation of time E = -4.4 min.
8. Calculate the sunset hour angle and day length at a location latitude of 35 o N on
February 14.
9. a. Calculate the day length at location (latitude = 28 o 35' N, Longitude = 77o 12' E) on
December 1.
b. Calculate the day length on May 1 for a south facing surface located at New Delhi
(28o 38' N, 77o 17' E) and titled at an angle of 40o.
10. Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation at 14:00 solar time on January 20
at latitude 35o N on surfaces with the following orientation: (i) Horizontal; (ii) Tilted to
south at slope of 40o; (iii) At slope of 40 but facing 40 o west of south; (iv) Vertical, facing
south and (v) vertical facing west.
Ex. No.: 2 Study and problems of hourly, daily and monthly solar radiation
Date: using pyranometer
Pyranometer
Working principle
A pyranometer is operated based on the measurement of temperature difference
between a black surface and a white surface. The potential difference created in the
thermopile owing to the temperature gradient between the two surfaces is used for
measuring the global or sky radiation.
Description
Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar
radiation. Its temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the
rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and radiation. The hot junction of a thermopile is
attached to the black surface, while the cold junction is located under a guard plate so that
they do not receive the radiation. The temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions is a function of the radiation falling on the surface. As a result, an emf is generated
which is a measure of the global radiation. The sensitive surface is covered by two
concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from wind, rain and other environmental
affects. The glass dome have uniformly high transmission characteristics throughout the
spectral range of 0.3 to 3.0 μm. A desiccator in the body prevents dew on the inner side of
the domes, which can cool down considerably on clear windless nights.

Pyranometer Pyranometer with shadow ring

Diffuse radiation measurement
Diffuse radiation can be measured by shading direct direction reaching the receiver
of pyranometer. The shadow ring is fixed in such a way that its plane parallel to the plane of
the path of the Sun’s daily movement across the sky and its shades the thermopile element
and the two glass domes of the pyranometer all times from direct sunshine.
The pyranometer is mounted at the centre of the shadow ring.
Monthly average daily global radiation
Modified Angstrom’s equation (by Page) for monthly average daily global radiation is:

=a+b
Where,

= monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location

(kJ/m2. day)
= monthly average of the daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface at the
same location on a clear day (kJ/m2. day)
= monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at the location (h)
= monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine hours per day at the location
i.e. the day length on a horizontal surface (h) and
a, b = constants obtained by fitting data

is the mean of the value Ho for each day of the month.

The dates on which the value of Ho is equal to are:

January 17, February 16, March 16, April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17, August 16,
September 15, October 15, November 14 and December 10

Ho = Isc dt

Now, t = hours; where ω is In radians

Ho = Isc dω

Ho = Isc ( ωs sinΦ sinδ + cosΦ cosδ sin ωs)

Table 2.1. Constants a and b for Indian cities
Location a b Location a b
Ahmedabad 0.28 0.48 Minicoy 0.26 0.39
Bengaluru 0.18 0.64 Nagpur 0.27 0.50
Bhavnagar 0.28 0.47 New Delhi 0.25 0.57
Kolkata 0.28 0.42 Pune 0.31 0.43
Goa 0.30 0.48 Shilong 0.22 0.57
Joghpur 0.33 0.46 Srinagar 0.35 0.40
Kodaikanal 0.32 0.55 Thiruvananthapuram 0.37 0.39
Chennai 0.30 0.44 Vishakhapatnam 0.28 0.47
Mangalore 0.27 0.43
Gopinathan’s correlation

= a1 + b1
a1 and b1 are constants and are related to the latitude, the elevation and the sunshine hours

a1 = – 0.309 + 0.539 cosΦ – 0.0693 EL + 0.290

b1 = 1.527 – 1.027 cosΦ + 0.0926 EL – 0.359

Where, Φ – latitude in degress and
EL - Elevation of the location above MSL in km
Monthly average daily diffuse radiation
Gopinathan and Soler equation for daily diffuse to global radiation ratio is

= 0.87813 – 0.33280 – 0.53039

Where,

= monthly average of the daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface (kJ/m 2. day)

= monthly average clearness index,

Monthly average daily diffuse radiation for Indian location
i. Modi and Sukatme equation

= 1.411 – 1.696
ii. Garg and Garg equation

= 0.8677 – 0.7365
Monthly average hourly global radiation
Collares- Pereira and Rabl equation

= (a + b cosω)
Where, a = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin (ωs – 60o)
b = 0.6609 – 0.4767 sin (ωs – 60o)

= monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location

(kJ/m2. h)
= monthly average of the hourly extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface at
the same location on a clear day (kJ/m2. h)
Gueymard equation

= (a + b cosω)/ fc

Where fc = a + 0.5 b
Monthly average hourly diffuse radiation
Liu and Jordan equation

=
Satyamurthy and Lahiri equation

= (a' + b' cosω)

a' = 0.4922 + for 0.1 ≤ ≤ 0.7

a' = 0.76 + for 0.7 ≤ ≤ 0.9

b' = 2 (1- a')

Example 2.1.
Estimate the monthly average daily global horizontal irradiance at Vadodara (22 o 00' N,
73o 10' E) during the month of March if the average sunshine hours per day is 9.5.
Assume a=0.28 and b=0.48; Take to be equal to the Ho on March 16.
Solution
On March 16, n=75

= = -2.420
Sunrise hour angle
ωs = cos-1 (- tan22o tan -2.420)
= cos-1 (-0.404 x 0.0423) = 89.02o = 1.554 radians

Day length Smax = ωs = x 89.02 = 11.87 h

Isc = 1.367 x 3600 kJ/m2 h; n= 75

Ho = Isc ( ωs sinΦ sinδ + cosΦ cosδ sin ωs)

 Ho = 1.367 x 3600 x (1.554 sin22o sin (-2.420 )+
cos22 o cos(-2.420) sin 89.02o)
Ho = 34206 kJ/m2 day

=a+b

=Ho [a + b ]

= 34206 [ 0.28+ 0.48 ] = 22718 kJ/m2 day

Problems
1.
Estimate the monthly average daily global horizontal irradiance at Vadodara (22 o 00' N,
73o 10' E) during the month of March if the average sunshine hours per day is 9.5. Use

Gopinathan’s correlation. Take to be equal to the Ho on March 16 and EL.

2.
Estimate the monthly average daily diffuse horizontal irradiance at Vadodara (22 o 00' N,
73o 10' E) during the month of March if the average sunshine hours per day is 9.5. Take

to be equal to the Ho on March 16; monthly average clearness index = 0.6642.

3. Use the prediction equations to calculate the monthly average of the daily and hourly
global and diffuse radiation during the month of April on a horizontal surface at New
Delhi (28o 35' N, 77o12' E, elevation 216 m). Time: 0900 to 1000h (LAT). The average
sunshine hours per day is 8.6. Compare the predicted values with the available
measurements.
4. Test the validity of the recommendation of the value of Ho for July can be taken equal to
the value of Ho on the seventeenth of the by doing calculations for Shilong (25 o 34' N,
91o 56' E).
5. Use the prediction equations to calculate the monthly average of the daily and hourly
global and diffuse radiation during the month of January on a horizontal surface at
Bhavnagar (21o 45' N, 72o11' E). Time: 0900 to 1000h (LAT). The monthly average
sunshine hours is 9.8. Compare the predicted values with the following measured

values given in the Handbook of Solar Radiation Data for India, = 18511 kJ/m2 day,
= 4198 kJ/m2 day.

Ex. No.: 3
Sun path diagram
Date:
Ex. No.: 4
Problems on Thermal losses and efficiency of flat plate collectors
Date:

Problems on Thermal losses and efficiency of flat plate collectors

Example 4.1.
Calculate the top loss coefficient (Ut) for a single glass cover with the following specifications: Plate
emittance= 0.9; Plate to cover spacing= 2.54 cm; Ambient temperature= 25°C; Wind speed= 10 m/s;
Mean plate temperature= 70°C; Back insulation thickness= 5cm; Insulation conductivity= 0.045W/m K
(0.0387 kcal/ hr m K) and Collector tilt= 30°
Solution:

The solution is by iteration. For the single glass cover,

hp-c is the convection coefficient between the plate and the cover, can be found by using the following
empirical relations:
For 45°, and mean plate temperature of 10°C

W/m2 K (or)

kcal/hr m2 K
where ΔT is the difference in temperature between plate and cover in oC and l is the plate spacing in
cm if mean plate temperature is other than 10°C.

Where is the average temperature between the two plates in 0oC.

hw can be found from
 W/m2 K

kcal/hr m2 K
The radiation coefficient from plate to the glass

and the radiation co-efficient from cover to sky

The cover glass temperature is found by noting that the heat loss from the plate to cover is the same
as from plate to surroundings

The procedure is to guess a cover temperature from which h pc hr-pc and hr-cs are calculated. With these
heat transfer coefficients and hw, Ut is calculated. These results are then used to calculate T c from the
above equation. If Tc is close to the initial guess, no further iteration is needed; otherwise the newly
calculated Tc is used and the process repeated.
Assuming cover temperature of 40°C

tc = 40°C; = 55°C

= 6.68

= 5.69 W/m2 K

= 2.82 W/m2 K

= 43.7 W/m2 K
 = 7.97 W/m2 K

= 32.2oC = 32oC
With this new value of tc

= 6.45

= 5.47 W/m2 K

= 3.05 W/m2 K

Second estimate at Ut

= 7.96

= 32.3oC = 32oC

W/m2 K

= 1.0185

= 8.11 W/m2 K
UL= overall loss coefficient (neglecting edge losses)
UL= 8.11+ 0.9 = 9.01 W/m2 K
Example 4.2.
For the conditions of example 1, calculate overall loss coefficient, assuming the collector bank 3m x
10m and collector thickness= 7.5 cm.
Solution:
The collector thickness is 7.5 cm. If the edge insulation is the same as bottom insulation, then

Uedge Aedge = x Ap
 Uedge Aedge = (10+3+10+3) x 0.075 = 1.76 W/K
If we base the loss on collector frontal area

Uedge = = 1.76/30 = 0.059 W/m2 K

Total loss Uo = Ut + Ub + Ue = 8.11+ 0.9 +0.059 = 9.069 W/m2 K
Example 4.3.
Determine the collector overall loss coefficient using Klein's empirical relation, for a single glass cover
with the following data: Plate emittance= 0.95; Plate to cover spacing= 2.5 cm; Ambient temperature=
10°C; Wind speed= 5 m/s; Mean plate temperature= 65°C; Back insulation thickness= 5cm; Insulation
conductivity= 0.045W/m K (0.0387 kcal/ hr m K) and Collector tilt= 23°. Neglect edge losses.
Solution:
Klein's empirical relation for Ut for 45° slope:

hw = 5.7+3.8 x 5.0 = 24.7 W/m2 °C

=0.335

= 7.2 W/m2 oC

= 7.393 W/m2 oC
Example 4.4.
Data for a flat plate collector used for heating the building are given below:
Factor Specification
Location and latitude Baroda, 22o N
Date and time January, 1, 11.30 to 12.30
Annual average intensity of solar radiation 0.5 langley/min
Collector tilt 37oN (latitude +15)
 No. of glass covers 2
Heat removal factor for collector 0.810
Transmittance of the glass 0.88
Absorptance of the plate 0.90
Top loss coefficient for collector 6.80 kcal/hr. m2 oC
Collector fluid temperature 60oC
Ambient temperature 15 oC
Calculate: (i) Solar altitude angle; (ii) Incident angle and (iii) Collector efficiency
Solution:

Declination δ can be found by

= = -23o
Solar hour angle ω=0 (mean of 11.30 to 12.30)
Sin α= cosΦ cosω cosδ + sinΦ sinδ
= cos22o cos0 cos(-23o) + sin22o sin(-23o)
=0.927 x 1x 0.9205 + 0.3746 x –(0.3907)
= 0.85 – 0.146
α = sin ( 0.704) = 44.7o
-1

Incident angle, θ = = 45.3o

Now Rb =

=
=1.40
Effective transmittance absorptance product

< >=

< >= = 0.811

Solar radiation intensity (considering beam radiation only)
Hb = 0.5 ly/min = 0.5 cal/cm2min = 300 kcal/m2h
S= Hb Rb< > = 300x1.4x0.811 = 340.62 kcal/m2h

Useful gain,
=
= 28.07 kcal/m2h
Collection efficiency

η= = = 0.06 = 6%

Problems
1. Calculate the top loss coefficient (Ut) for a single glass cover with the following specifications:
Plate emittance= 0.95; Plate to cover spacing= 2.54 cm; Ambient temperature= 25°C; Wind
speed= 3 m/s; Mean plate temperature= 75°C; Back insulation thickness= 5cm; Insulation
conductivity= 0.045W/m K (0.0387 kcal/ hr m K) and Collector tilt= 40°

2. Data for a flat plate collector used for heating the building are given below:
Factor Specification
Location and latitude Coimbatore, 11o N
Date and time March 22, 14.30 to 15.30 (LST)
Annual average intensity of solar radiation 0.8 langley/min (560 W/m2)
Collector tilt 26o
No. of glass covers 2
Heat removal factor for collector 0.82
Transmittance of the glass 0.88
Absorptance of the plate 0.93
Top loss coefficient for collector 6.84 kcal/hr. m2 oC (7.95 W/m2 oC)
Collector fluid temperature 75oC
Ambient temperature 25 oC
Calculate: (i) Solar altitude angle; (ii) Incident angle and (iii) Collector efficiency
Ex. No.: 5
Testing of solar water heater
Date:
Aim
To test the solar water heater to assess its performance
Theory
Solar water heater converts solar energy into thermal energy and is transferred to
water to generated hot water. The performance such as hot water generation, temperature
of hot water, efficiency of hot water system etc. can be assessed by the following
procedures. The assessment can be carried out for a specific period say 8 hours in a day.
Instruments required
Pyranometer and Thermometer
Procedure
1. Measure the collector area and note down the capacity of the solar water heater.
2. Fill the cold water tank up to the solar water heater capacity
3. Record the ambient temperature, solar radiation and initial temperature of water.
4. Check the hot water outlet for the water temperature (Th) and note the time taken
Parameters to be measured
Solar insolation in the study period, S = W m-2
Capacity of hot water system, Q = lpd
Length of the collector, l = m
Width of the collector, w = m
Number of collectors, n =
Atmospheric temperature, Ta = °C
Specific heat of water, Cp = kJ/kg °C
Cold water temperature, Tc = °C
Hot water temperature, Th = °C
Calculation
Total collector area, Ac, m2 = n x length x width of each collector
= nxlxw
1kWh = 3600 kJ

Daily available solar radiation, SD = kJ d-1

Daily heat energy required to heat the water, Qu = Q × Cp × ∆T, kJ d-1

Thermal efficiency, % =

=
Result: Thermal efficiency of solar water heater = _________ %

Problems
1. Determine the collector area to supply 200 litres per day, hot water at a temperature of
65oC, for a family at a location where average radiation intensity available is 6 kWh/m 2.
The temperature of supply water to the bottom of storage tank is 15 oC. Collection
efficiency may be assumed to be 30%.
2. Determine the size of the heating array from the following factors: The daily heating
needs of the home during the heating season are 100 kWh/day. The available daily
insolation on the array is 4 kWh /m 2 day. Also assume that each panel has an area of
1.5 m2, an efficiency of 50 per cent, and that one third of the heating will come from
auxiliary heaters.
3. Estimate the temperature rise of the water in a 100 litre capacity thermosyphon solar
water heating system during a typical day of operation. Estimate also the electricity
saved because of the use of a solar water heater and the corresponding reduction in
the monthly electricity bill. Assume the system has one FPC, 2 m 2; solar insolation is
5 kWh /m2 day and 50% collector efficiency
Ex. No.: 6
Testing of natural convection dryer
Date:
Aim
To test the natural convection dryer to assess its performance
Theory
Solar dryers are used to generate hot air and subsequently the hot air can be used
for various applications viz. space heating, drying of various commodities such as grains,
vegetables, fruits etc. The performance such as quantity of hot air generation, hot air
temperature, system efficiency etc. can be assessed.
Instruments required
Pyranometer, thermometer and air flow meters
Procedure

● Weigh an empty tray and measure its length and breadth.

● Record the ambient temperature and solar radiation.

● Place a known quantity of onion / chilly / green leaves (W 1) to be dried in the tray and
keep inside the dryer.

● Measure the hot air temperature inside the solar dryer and sample weight,
periodically until the product attains the storage moisture content.

● Note down the final weight (W2) of the product

Parameters to be measured
Solar insolation in the study period, S : W m-2
Mass of material to be dried, W1 : kg
Effective hours of drying, P : h
Latent heat of vaporization of water, Lw : 2260 kJ/kg
Length of the collector, L : m
Width of the collector, w : m
Number of collectors, n :
Atmospheric temperature, Ta : °C
Temperature of hot air, Th : °C
Specific heat of drying material, Cp : kJ/kg °C
Final quantity of dried material, W2 : kg
Calculation

Hourly available solar radiation, SH = kJ h-1

Heat energy required for drying, kJ = Specific heat + Latent Heat

Hourly heat energy required for drying = kJ h-1

Thermal efficiency = x 100

Where, m = Mass of material to be dried (W 1), kg
Wm = Moisture to be evaporated = W1 - W2, kg
∆T = Rise in temperature of air = Th - Ta, °C
Ac = Total collector area = n x L x w m2

Result: Thermal efficiency of the solar dryer = ----------------------%

Ex. No.: 7
Study of photovoltaic cell characteristics
Date:
Aim
To study the Illumination, Current Voltage, Power Load, Area and Spectral
characteristics of photovoltaic cell
Instruments/ tools required
Solar panel, voltmeter, micro-ammeter, decade resistance box and a 100 W lamp
fitted with an intensity control.
Procedure
1. Illumination Characteristics
i. Make the circuit as shown in figure. A 100 W lamp is arranged over the solar cell
such that the light falls on it at normal. The intensity control is kept at its minimum say
at 50 volts and the lamp is switched on.
ii. Adjust the resistance box at zero ohm (i.e. both the knobs marked X10 and X100
ohm must be set at off position) note the short circuit current and make table as
shown below.
iii. Increase the intensity of the lamp in steps say 100, 150, 200 volts and note the
corresponding current for each setting of the voltage, record these readings in the
table. (Note: Intensity is taken as proportional to the A.C. voltage given to the lamp)
iv. Plot a graph between Current and the Intensity.

Table 7.1
Sl. No. Intensity(Volts) Current (mA)
1. 100
2. 150
3. 200

2. Current Voltage Characteristics

i. The intensity of the lamp is kept at the minimum say 100 V. disconnect the load
resistance (i.e. R.B. is at infinity) and note the open circuit voltage.
ii. Adjust the resistance box (R.B.) at zero ohm (i.e. both the knob of the resistance box
marked X10 and X100 ohm must be set at off position) and note the short circuit
current.
 iii. Set the load dial at 100 ohms. Note the corresponding voltage and current make the
table as shown below and record these readings in the table. Vary the load in steps
up to 1100 ohms and note the corresponding voltage and current for each setting of
the load in table
iv. The intensity of the lamp is increased say 150 V. The load is again varied from 100 to
1100 ohms, and note the corresponding voltage and the currents, record the value in
the table. The open circuit voltage and the short circuit current are also determined
and recorded.
v. The intensity of the lamp is set at 200 V, and repeat step 4. Record these readings in
the table.
vi. Plot a graph for Current Vs Voltage.
Table 7.2
Sl.No RL (ohms) Intensity I1 Intensity I2 Intensity I3
. Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current
(V) (mA) (V) (mA) (V) (mA)
1. 100
2. 200
3. …

3. Power Load Characteristics

i. Using the sets of the reading obtained in the table 2 above, calculate the output
power of the cell. Make table as shown below and record the readings in the table.
ii. Plot a graph for Power Vs Load. Measure the value of the optimum load that draws
maximum power from the cell.
Table 7.3
Sl.No RL (ohms) Intensity I1 = 100V Intensity I2 = 150V Intensity I3 = 200V
. Power mW Power mW Power mW
1. 100
2. 200
3. …
4. Area Characteristics
i. Set the intensity of the lamp at a convenient level say 200V. Adjust the load at the
optimum value.
ii. Place the chopper plate having different slot areas, in front of the solar cell in the
grove provided.
iii. Adjust one of the slot say 16 mm2 over the solar cell; it reduces the surface area,
which is illuminated. The voltage and the current readings are noted in the table.
Note the corresponding voltage and current readings make table as shown below
and record the readings in the table.
iv. Adjust the other slots say 36, 64, 100, 144 mm 2 over the solar cell and note the
corresponding current and voltage for each slot area and record the readings in the
table.
v. Plot a graph for Power Vs Area. Measure the slope of the curve
Table 7.4
2
Sl. No. Slot Area, mm Voltage, V volts Current, I amps Power P = VI, mW
 1.
2.
3.
4.

5. Spectral Characteristics
i. Set the intensity of the lamp to a convenient level say 200 V. Adjust the load at the
optimum value.
ii. Put the different colors filter over the solar cell and for each filter the note voltage and
the current and record these readings in the table.
iii. The wavelength corresponding to each color is noted and calculate the output power
iv. Plot a graph for Power Vs Wavelength.
Table 7.5
Sl. Filter Colors Peak Wavelength Voltage, Current, Power
No. Transmitted, Ao V volts I amps P = VI, mW
1.
2.

Illumination Characteristics
It is seen that the current through the solar cell
increases as the intensity of the light falling on the solar cell increases.

Current Voltage Characteristics

The output characteristic (current voltage characteristics) of a solar
cell is shown in the Fig. It is seen that in the open circuit, the output voltage of the cell is ≈
0.6 V and the current is zero. If the panel is short circuited, the current is maximum while the
output voltage of the cell becomes zero. In both the cases, the output power is zero. It is
seen from the curve that the voltage varies depending on the current drawn.
Power Load Characteristics
To derive maximum power from the panel, an appropriate load is to be connected
across it. The value of the load that allows the cell to give maximum output power is
obtained by drawing a power load characteristics, as shown in the Fig. It is seen that a load
other than (RL)max will produce less power.

Area Characteristics
The power delivered is proportional to the surface area of the solar panel exposed to
the light. It is governed by the relation, P = K A Where, P is the total power available A is the
area of the Cell K is a constant. The dependence of P on A is shown in the Fig.

Spectral Characteristics
The response of a solar cell to light depends on the wavelength of the incident light
also. In the sunlight, different colors have different intensities. The variation of power on
wavelength is shown in the Fig.
Ex. No.: 8
Sizing of SPV systems
Date:
After estimating the energy requirement of the load, the next step is to choose appropriate
electronics suitable for this PV system

Inverter selection

The inverter should be selected in such a way that it should supply the desired power to the
load. The desired power for the load is the total power connected to the load. The total connected
power of the load is equal to the desired output power of the inverter. In practice, it is good to choose
an inverter having power capacity higher than the total connected load. Once knowing the output
power of the inverter we need to know what power must be supplied to the inverter. By considering
the efficiency of the inverter, one can estimate the required input power to the inverter.

Matching the calculated inverter capacity with that available in the market

Once we estimate the size or power capacity of the inverter we need to see what is available
in the market. A choice of the inverter is important as the available inverter will decide what input DC
voltages it can take it input side.

High DC voltage means less current

It is good to choose an inverter which can take high input DC voltage. High voltage will
require less current in the same system for the same power flow. Less current means less power loss
and thinner wires, less cost of the system.

DC – DC converter selection

If there are DC loads in the system, then we may require different voltage levels of the Dc
voltage. This is because various DC load may requires different Dc voltages for proper functioning.
The function of converting one DC voltage level to other DC voltage level is obtained by DC – DC
converter. The choice of the DC to DC converter depends on the connected DC loads, particularly
input voltage range of the DC appliances. The input voltage to the DC to DC converter will be the
system voltage which can be 12V or 24 V or 48 V or any other value. High voltage is preferable
because as the system voltage increases, the current flowing in the system will decrease, hence he
thickness of wire decreases ultimately the cost and wear and tear.

Solar charge controller (SCC) or MPPT selection

The SCC or MPPT should be chosen as per the required input and output voltage and current
of load and battery. It should be able to handle the currents and voltages that are likely to be flowing
in the system.

Determining the battery size

The inverter and DC to DC converters will have some losses because they will have less than
100% efficiency. We have to choose batteries in such a way that they should not only supply the
power and energy required by the load, but also be able to supply the loss of energy in inverter/ or DC
to DC converters. In order to size the battery, we have to consider the following parameters:
a. System voltage ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery

Ah = Wh/V

b. DoD of batteries

It indicates how much of the total charge of the battery can be used. In solar PV, deep
discharge batteries are used with DoD in the range of 50 to 60%.

c. Number of days of autonomy

The number of cloudy days for which we want to store the energy is referred as ‘number of
days of autonomy”. The batteries in standalone PV systems store energy to supply the power to the
load during non-sunshine hours. Whatever estimation we have after considering the DoD, we need to
increase the capacity of the batteries to store the extra energy for the number of days of autonomy. All
the three parameters can be put together in one simple equation for the estimation of total Ah capacity
of batteries required for a given standalone PV system.

Total Ah capacity of battery =

Number of batteries

Batteries of different ampere hours are available in the market.

Total number of batteries =

Determine the PV modules size

The PV module must supply enough energy to the battery, so that battery can supply energy to the
inverter, in order to supply to the load as per the need. We can determine the input energy that must
be supplied by the battery bank (input energy that must be produced by PV module on daily basis) if
we know the energy supplied by the battery to the inverter and efficiency of the battery.

Input energy from PV module =

Typically the efficiency of batteries is 80 to 90%

Daily solar radiation in terms of equivalent sunshine hours

Daily solar radiation = STC power density x Equivalent daily sunshine hours

= 1kW/m2 x Equivalent daily sunshine hours

We can say that for 5kWh/m2 day, the solar radiation is equal to 5 hours of 1kW/m 2 or the equivalent
daily sunshine hour is 5.

PV module sizing

If we divide the daily energy that needs to be supplied by the PV module by the equivalent
daily sunshine hours, we will get the required power of PV modules.

PV module Wattage (W) =

Selection of PV modules

PV modules of many ratings are available in the market.

Total number of PV modules =

Fuse, wire and junction box selection

Fuses, wires and junction should be chosen for the maximum possible currents and voltages
that are likely to occur in the system. The parameter used for choosing the products is current.

Example 8.1

Design a Solar PV system for a house which contains 3 fans of 70 watts each running for
4 hours a day, 3 tube lights of 35 watts each running for 8 hours a day and a refrigerator of
250 watts running for 6 hours a day (consider battery autonomy zero days).

Step 1 Prepare AC load

No. Name of Watts No. Total watts No. of Energy (Total watts x
appliances (W) hours No. of hours) (Wh)
1. Fans 70 3 210 4 840
2. Tube light 35 3 105 8 840
3. Refrigerator 250 1 250 6 1500
Total 565 W 3180 Wh
Step 2 Electronics component selection

a. Inverter capacity selection

Load Inverter

Total wattage of load, W Efficiency, % Output, W Input, VA

565 93 565 565 /0.93 = 610

The nearest inverter capacity available to 610 VA is 650 VA, so, the inverter capacity is 12V, 650VA

Total energy (Wh) Efficiency, % Total energy (Wh)

3180 93 3180/.93 = 3420

b. Solar Charge controller selection

Energy (Wh) Wattage (W) Voltage (V) Max. current (A)

3420 565 12 565/12 = 48

Here the system voltage is 12 Volts.

Step 3 Battery sizing

a. Battery capacity

Energy (Wh) System Voltage Battery capacity DoD (%) Actual battery
(V) (Ah) capacity (Ah)

3420 12 3420/12 = 285 50 285/0.5=570 Ah

b. Number of batteries

Actual battery capacity (Ah) Standard battery capacity (Ah) No. of batteries

570 150Ah 570/150=3.8 =4

c. No. of connections in series or parallel

No. of Batteries System Voltage Std battery Series Parallel
(V) voltage (V) connections connections
4 12 12 12/12 = 1 4/1
Step 4 SPV sizing

a. Energy calaculation

Total Energy (Wh) Battery efficiency (%) Energy from PV module (Wh)

3420 95 3420/0.95 = 3600

b. PV module wattage estimation

Energy from PV module (Wh) No. of sunshine hours (h) PV module wattage (W)

3600 4.5 800

c. Number of PV modules

Actual PV module capacity (W) Standard PV module capacity No. of PV modules

800 230 W 800/160=3.47 =4

d. No. of modules in series or parallel

No. of PV System Voltage Std PV module Series Parallel
modules (V) voltage (V) connections connections
4 12 12 12/12 = 1 4/1
Step 5 Wiring, fuse and junction box selection
a. Maximum direct current and voltage
System Max. DC Wattage (W) System DC voltage (V) Max. DC Current (A)

1 4 x 230 = 920 12 920/12 = 76.66 = 77 A

b. DC wiring, fuse and junction box selection

System Max. DC Voltage (V) & Current (A) SWG Fuse Switch /Junction box

1 12 V, 60 A (4 batteries x 15 A)

c. Maximum alternating current and voltage

System Max. AC Wattage (W) System AC voltage (V) Max. AC Current (A)

1 565 W 230 600/230 =2.45 =3

d. AC wiring, fuse and junction box selection

System Max. AC Voltage (V) & Current (A) SWG Fuse Switch /Junction box

1 230 V, 3 A

Problems

1. Design a Solar PV system for a house which contains 3 fans of 70 watts each running for
4 hours a day, 3 tube lights of 35 watts each running for 8 hours a day and a refrigerator of 250
watts running for 6 hours a day. Consider 2 days battery autonomy.

2. Design a SPV system for a factory which contains 1 hp motor operating for 4 hours a day,
8 tube-lights, each of 50 watts operating for 7 hours a day. Consider 1 day autonomy for
battery.
Ex. No.: 9
Design of SPV system for small grid connected application
Date:
Basic principles to be followed when designing a quality grid-connected PV power plant for
small power applications are as follows:

1. Select a packaged system that meets the owner’s needs. Customer criteria for a
system may include meeting annual energy requirements, reduction in monthly
electricity bill, environmental benefits, desire for backup power, initial budget
constraints, etc.
2. Size and orient the PV array to provide the expected electrical power and energy.
3. Ensure the roof area or other Installation site is capable of handling the desired
system size.
4. Locate the array to minimise shading and interference with obstructions.
5. Ensure that suitable cable ducts are available to lay DC cables from array to the
inverter.
6. Ensure control room is available indoors to house inverter as well as DC and AC
distribution boxes.
7. Specify sunlight and weather resistant materials for all outdoor equipment.
8. Design the system with a minimum of electrical losses due to wiring, fuses, switches
and inverters.
9. Design the system in compliance with all applicable building and electrical codes.
10. Ensure the design meets local utility interconnection requirements.
Steps of System Design
We need to design the system to meet annual energy consumption requirements.

Step 1: Estimate the Annual Energy Usage

Table 9.1. Estimation of energy consumption by the load

Sl.No Type of Appliance Power of Daily Duration Electrical Energy

. Appliance of Usage Consumed
1. Tube light 40 W 4 Hours 400 Wh
2. Fan 60 W 10 Hours 600 Wh
3. TV 150 W 4 Hours 600 Wh
4. Refrigerator 200 W 10 Hours 2000 Wh
5. AC 1.5 kW 10 Hours 15000Wh
Total 18600 Wh
Considering Future Load 1400 Wh
Daily energy consumption = 20000Wh = 20 kWh = 20 units
Additional load or allowances in load in near future should be considered. Based on the daily
energy requirements, monthly and yearly energy can also be determined.

Step 2: Average daily solar radiation in terms of equivalent sunshine hours:

The solar radiation available in India normally varies from 4 kWh/m 2 to 7 kWh/m2.
Solar PV modules are rated for Standard Test Condition (STC) which is equal to sunlight
power density of 1000 W/m2 or 1 kW/m2 and Temperature of 25° C. Suppose at location, the
daily solar radiation is 5 kWh/m2day, can be written as 1kW/m2 x 5 hours/day, is equal to the
power density of 1kW/m2 for 5 hours per day. In this case, 5 hours/dayis referred as the
equivalent sunshine hours.

Step 3: Estimate the AC power supplied to the load

AC power to load (in kW) =

= = 4 kW
Step 4: Estimate the AC power output of inverter or PV plant output power

AC output power losses consists of AC cable losses, typically of the order of 2 to 5%.

Say this as 5%,

AC power output of the inverter (kW) =

Inverter AC output power = = = 4.21 kW

Step 5: Estimate the DC power input to inverter
Inverter power losses consists of MPPT tracking and DC to AC conversion losses.
Power losses in an efficient inverter are in the range of 2 to 5%.

Say this as 3%,

Inverter to DC power input =

Inverter to DC input power = = = 4.34 kW

Step 6: Estimate the DC power output of PV array
DC cables connecting PV array and inverter have power losses. Assuming DC cable
losses as 3%,

PV array DC power output (kW) =

 PV array DC output power = = = 4.47 kW
Step 7: Take operating losses in account
The module or PV array output gets reduced by the following way:

1. Manufacturing tolerance/module mismatch loss

2. Module Temperature loss

3. Module Soiling loss

Modules mismatch losses

The typical manufacturing tolerance of PV module output power is +/- 3%

Module temperature losses

In order to determine the module temperature losses, module average operating

temperature needs to be determined. For average ambient temperature of 30°C, the module
average operating temperature (MAOT) is 50°C. The crystalline power modules have power
temperature co efficient of about 0.45%/°C, while the thin film modules have lower
temperature co efficient ranging from 0.2 to 0.3 %/°C.

Module temperature loss = (MAOT - STC) x power temperature co-efficient

Considering crystalline silicon modules,

Module temperature loss = (50°C – 25°C) x 0.45%/°C = 11.25%

Module soiling losses

The modules are typically soiled by dust, dirt, bird droppings etc. Typical module
soiling loss is estimated at 5%.

Total module loss = mismatch loss + temperature loss + soiling loss

= 3 %+ 11.25 %+ 5% = 19.25%

Step 8: Estimate final required PV array capacity

Final PV array power output =

= = 5.57 kWp or about 6 kWp

Wp indicates that this power rating is for STC condition.

Step 9: Estimate Required Number of Modules
PV modules are available in the capacity of 30 W p to 300 Wp. Say, PV modules of
145 Wp is available,
 Total number of PV modules required = = = 41.37
Taking the next integer value, we can say 42 modules will be required.

Step 10: Estimate the power inverter rating:

This is required because reflection from the clouds or other objects may temporarily
increase the sunlight falling on module, resulting in higher power generation. Also, we have
considered 3% mismatch losses. In case there is no mismatch in modules, extra output
would appear at inverter output. Overall, our inverter capacity should be 10% to 15% higher
than input power value estimated in Step 6.

Inverter Power rating (kW) =

= = = 5.11 kWp
Step 11: PV array configuration
The PV array configuration or the number of PV modules to be connected in series or
in string, and the number of parallel strings depend on the inverter voltage ratings.

Table 9.2. Typical parameter of Commercial PV modules

Model X Pm (Wp) Voc (V) Isc (A) Vm (V) Im (A)

Module 1 125 22.10 7.90 18.20 6.90
Module 2 135 22.00 8.38 17.70 7.63
Module 3 145 22.40 8.50 18.35 7.90
Module 4 200 32.50 8.42 26.10 7.66
Module 5 210 41.59 7.13 33.81 6.21
Module 6 230 36.00 8.45 28.60 8.05
Module 7 240 37.38 8.45 30.60 7.85

Table 9.3. Typical parameters of Commercial Grid connected Inverters

AC power Model Maximum DC MPP Voltage Max. DC Peak
output Input Voltage Tracking Range current Efficiency
(kVA) (V) (V) (A) (%)
5 Inverter 1 600 80-120 50 97.0
10 Inverter 2 600 100-160 75 97.5
17 Inverter 3 600 400-800 35 98.2
250 Inverter 4 600 330-600 800 97.5
500 Inverter 5 600 330-600 1470 98.6
 1000 Inverter 6 1000 460-875 2100 98.6

Total number of PV modules required = = = 41.37 (Step 9)

We need 42 PV modules of 145 Wp for this PV system.
Number of PV modules in string
In order to determine the number of PV modules in array, we should look at the
acceptable voltage rating of the inverter and try to match it with the voltage ratings of strings.
From Step 10, inverter power rating is 5.11 kVA. Let us say that commercial inverter
available in the market is 5 kVA (Inverter 1 - Table 9.3.)

No. of modules in string =

= = 5.44 = 6 Modules (rounded off)

Vmp of 6 modules = 6 x 18.35 = 111.9
It is still in the range of Vmp tracking of the inverter and should be acceptable.
Number of PV strings in parallel
One of the strings of PV system will have 6 PV modules.

No. of strings in parallel = = =7

Total current of strings in parallel = Current of one string x Total number of strings
= 8.5 x 7 = 59.5 A
Current of 7 strings put together is higher than the maximum allowable DC current of
the inverter. Hence, Inverter 1 is not suitable for this application.

In such cases, either we choose some other inverter to fit our PV array arrangements
or we change our PV system requirements to match with the inverter rating.

Step 12: Select balance of the system components

Various Balance of Systems (BoS) components are required to integrate the system.

Table 9.4. DC BoS Components

Sl. No. DC BoS Components Specifications/rating
1. PV array support structureFixed, manual tracking or auto tracking
2. DC cables Rated for a minimum of 1.25 times PV array short
circuit current; Total length of string DC cables is 2
times the distance between module and string
combiner box and array DC cables is 2 times the
distance between the combiner box and the inverter.
DC cable size is selected such that the total power
loss over the entire length of DC cables is within 3 %
of the rated PV array output power.
3. String and array combiner Double insulated & rated for IP65
boxes
4. DC distribution boxes
 Table 9.5. AC BoS Components
Sl. No. AC BoS Components Specifications/rating
1. Ac circuit breakers Rated for 1.2 times the maximum AC output
current of the Inverter
2. AC overvoltage protection 400 V AC for 230 V Single phase circuits
devices 600 V AC for 415 V three phase circuits
3. AC output transformers Rated for 1.2 times the maximum AC output
power of the Inverter
4. AC cables Rated for 1.2 times the maximum AC output
current carried. AC cable size is selected such
that the total power loss over the entire length
of AC cables is within 2 % of the rated inverter
AC output power.
5. AC distribution boxes
6. AC energy meters
Step 13: Select energy meter
The energy meters are used to monitor energy generated by the PV power plant,
energy consumed by the load and energy supplied to the grid by the plant. For small power
applications, net energy meter is used to monitor the net energy drawn by load from the grid
or net energy supplied by the inverter to the grid. DC energy meter can be used at the output
of PV array to monitor PV generated DC energy. In PV power plant for large power
applications, three phase AC energy meters are used to monitor energy produced by PV
power plant and supplied to MV grid.

Example 9.1.
A solar PV array is rated at 100 V/50 A DC. System power losses are 20%. What is the AC
power fed into the grid? If the grid voltage is 240 V AC, what is the AC current fed into the
grid?

DC power = 100 V x 50 A = 5000 W

Power lost in converting DC to AC power= 5000 x 20/100= 1000 W

AC power fed into grid = DC power –Power loss = 4000 W

Ac current fed into grid = AC power / AC Voltage = 4000/240 = 16.67 A

Problems

1. Design a grid connected PV system for fulfilling the load energy requirement of
12 kWh/day. Assume that grid is available full time and no battery storage is required.
Give the details of all component selected for this plant. Take average ambient
temperature of 25°C, and average solar radiation of 5.5 kWh/ m2 day.

2. A solar PV array is rated at 96 V/150 A DC. System power losses are 22%. What is the
AC power fed into the grid? If the grid voltage is 240 V AC, what is the AC current fed
into the grid?
3. A solar PV module is rated for Voc = 36 V, Vmp=30 V, Isc=8.5 A and Imp=7.9 A.
Design a solar PV string to produce DC voltage output of 120 V. What will be the DC
current output of the string? What will be the DC power output of series-connected
string?
4. A solar PV string is rated for Vmp=400 V and Imp=8 A. Design a series-parallel
connected solar PV array to generate 16 kW DC power. What will be the DC output
voltage and current of the array?

5. Design a grid-connected PV system for fulfilling the load energy requirement of 25

kWh/day. Assume that grid is available full time and no battery storage is required. Give
the details of all component selected for this plant. The plant is to be installed in
Chennai where average solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m2 day.
Ex. No.: 10 Wind Energy conversion calculations for power relating parameter
Date: and velocity

Wind shear influences both the assessment of wind resources and the design of wind
turbines. The mean wind speed increases with height, which defines the phenomenon called
wind shear. In wind energy studies, two mathematical models or ‘laws’ have generally been
used to model the vertical profile of wind speed over regions of homogenous, flat terrain
(e.g., fields, deserts, and prairies) viz., , the Log law and the Power law.

Logarithmic Profile (Log Law)

The log law is often used to extrapolate wind speed from a reference height, zr, to
another level using the following relationship:

where U(z) is the wind speed at height z, U(z r) is the reference wind speed at height z r, and
zo is the surface roughness length, which characterizes the roughness of the ground terrain.

Table 10.1 Values (Approx.) of surface roughness length for various types of terrain

Power Law Profile

where U(z) is the wind speed at height z, U(z r) is the reference wind speed at height z r, and
α is the power law exponent. It has been found that a varies with such parameters as
elevation, time of day, season, nature of the terrain, wind speed, temperature, and various
thermal and mechanical mixing parameters.
Table 10.2 Values (Approx.) of power law exponent for various types of terrain

Wind turbine Power

Power produced by the wind turbine is

Watts
Where ρ - air density (kg/m3); A-Area swept by the rotor (m2); v- wind velocity(m/s);
Cp – Rotor power coefficient and η- drive train efficiency
Capacity factor
The capacity factor of a wind turbine at a given site is defined as the ratio of the
energy actually produced by the turbine to the energy that could have been produced if the
machine ran at its rated power over a given time period
Example 10.1
a) Determine the wind speed at a height of 40 m over surface terrain with a few trees, if the
wind speed at a height of 10 m is known to be 5 m/s. For your estimate use two different
wind speed estimation methods. b) Using the same methods as part a), determine the wind
speed at 40 m if the trees were all removed from the terrain.
Solution
a) First Method: Assume a simple logarithmic wind profile. The wind speed at a height of
40 m can be calculated via
 U(z)
From Table 10.1, zo = 100 mm = 0.1 m

U(z) = 6.51 m/s

Second Method: Assume a power law wind speed profile. The wind speed at a height of
40 m is determined via

For terrain with few trees α = 0.2, then:

= 6.59 m/s
b) First Method: With the trees cut down, assume a rough pasture surface terrain. Using
the data from Table 10.1, zo = 10 mm = 0.01 m. Thus:

U(z) = 6.0 m/s

Second Method: Assume a power law wind speed profile. The wind speed at a height of
40 m is determined via

For short grass, α = 0.14, then:

= 6.07 m/s
Example 10.2
A 30 m diameter wind turbine is placed on a 50 m tower in terrain with a power law
coefficient (α) of 0.2. Find the ratio of available power in the wind at the highest point the
rotor reaches to its lowest point.
Solution
D = 30 m, hub height = 50 m, α = 0.2
zlow = 50 - 15 = 35 m
zhigh = 50 + 15 = 65 m
The ratio of the wind speeds is:

= 1.13
The ratio of the powers is the cube of the ratio of the wind speeds:

Example 10.3
Find the size of a wind turbine rotor (diameter in m) that will generate 100 kW of electrical
power in a steady wind (hub height) of 7.5 m/s. Assume that the air density is 1.225 kg/m 3,
Cp = 16/27 and η = 1.
Solution
P = 100 kW; v = 7.5 m/s, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3, CP = 16/27, η = 1

100x 1000 =
D =28.8 m
Example 10.4
Based on average speed data only, estimate the annual energy production from a horizontal
axis wind turbine with a 12 m diameter operating in a wind regime with an average wind
speed of 8 m/s. Assume that the wind turbine is operating under standard atmospheric
conditions (ρ = 1.225 kg/m3). Assume turbine efficiency (including blades and drive train) of
0.4.
Solution
The annual energy production (in kWh) can be determined from:
Annual energy production (kWh) = (Efficiency) (Pa) (8760 hrs)
For an average wind speed of 8 m/s, Pa is determined as
 = 35467 W = 35.46 kW
Annual energy production = (0.4) (35.46) (8760) = 124,300 kWh

Example 10.5
A 40 m diameter, three bladed wind turbine produces 700 kW at a wind speed (hub height)
of 14 m/s. The air density is 1.225 kg/m3. Find: a) The rotational speed (rpm) of the rotor at a
tip-speed ratio of 5.0. b) What is the tip-speed (m/s)? c) If the generator turns at 1800 rpm,
what gear ratio is needed to match the rotor speed to the generator speed.
Solution

a.

rad/s

rpm

b. m/s

c. Gear box ratio

Example 10.5
Find the capacity factor of a 5 kW wind turbine generating annually 10 MWh
Solution

= 0.2283
Example 10.6

Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure and 15 oC temperature has a velocity of

15 m/s. The turbine has diameter of 120 m and its operating speed in 40 rpm at
maximum efficiency. Calculate: a. the power density in the wind stream; b. the
maximum obtainable power density; c. a reasonably obtainable power density; d. the total
power and e. the torque and axial thrust
Solution
For air, Gas constant, R = 287 J/kgK
1 atm. = 1.01325 x 105 Pa

Air density, kg/m3

i. Total Power density in the wind stream, = 2068.87 W/m2

ii. Maximum obtainable power density, = 1226 W/m2

iii. Assuming efficiency, η=35%

Reasonably obtainable power density, = 724 W/m2

iv. Total Power produced by the turbine = x Area swept by the rotor

= Watts = 8184Watts
v. Torque at maximum efficiency

Newton
Maximum axial Thrust is

1385870 Newton

Problems
1. Prove that in case of horizontal axis wind turbine Pmax is 0.593 times the power available
in the wind stream
2. Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure and 15oC temperature has a velocity of 10
m/s. The turbine has diameter of 120 m and its operating speed in 40 rpm at maximum
efficiency. Calculate: a. the power density in the wind stream; b. the maximum
obtainable power density; c. a reasonably obtainable power density; d. the total power
and e. the torque and axial thrust
3. Determine the wind speed at a height of 50 m over terrain with a many trees and few
buildings, if the wind speed at a height of 20 m is known to be 10 m/s.
Ex. No.: 11
Weibull distribution model and wind rose diagram
Date:
Probability Density Function
The frequency of occurrence of wind speeds may be described by the probability
density function, p(U), of wind speed.

Cumulative Distribution Function

The cumulative distribution function F(U) represents the time fraction or probability
that the wind speed is smaller than or equal to a given wind speed, U. That is: F(U') = P(U ' ≤
U) where U' is a dummy variable.

Also, the derivative of the cumulative distribution function is equal to the probability density
function, i.e.:

Therefore,

Weibull Distribution

Use of the Weibull probability density function requires knowledge of two parameters:

, a shape factor and , a scale factor. Both of these parameters are functions of and

. The Weibull probability density function and the cumulative distribution function are
given by:

Mean wind speed,

Taking

Average velocity

Where
The gamma function can be approximated by (Jamil, 1994):

Wind rose
A wind rose is a diagram showing the temporal distribution of wind direction and
azimuthal distribution of wind speed at a given location. It is a convenient tool for displaying
anemometer data (wind speed and direction) for siting analysis. It consists of equally spaced
concentric circles with 16 equally spaced radial lines (each represents a compass point).
The line length is proportional to the frequency of the wind from the compass point, with the
circles forming a scale. The frequency of calm conditions is indicated in the center. The
longest lines identify the prevailing wind directions. Wind roses generally are used to
represent annual, seasonal, or monthly data.

Example 11.1

Draw a wind rose diagram for the following data

Wind direction % of days wind blowing

from this direction
N 27
 NE 9
E 8
SE 14
S 10
SW 7
W 6
NW 15
Calm 4

Step 1: Select a suitable scale (1 cm = 10%)

Step 2: Draw a circle to represent the calm for this scale. (Draw a circle with 0.4 cm radius)
Step 3: Mark the directions in this circle using a protractor (0° for North, 45° for NE, 90° for
East, 135° for South East, 180° for South, 225° for South West, 270° for West and 315° for
North West)
Step 4: Draw a bar with suitable with equal to the length of 2.7 cm in northern direction, 0.9
cm in the north eastern direction and so on to complete the diagram.
Step 5: Mention the calm in the centre, mention the scale chosen to draw the diagram and
name the directions as instructed above.
Ex. No.: 12
Problems on Wind resource assessment
Date:
Example 12.1

Determine the expected number of hours per year of wind speed between 7.9 m/s and 8.8
m/s at site 1 in Figure 12.20 at an elevation of 20 m.

Fig.12.1 Weibull fitted wind speed frequency distribution

Example 12.2
A wind turbine at site 2 in Fig. 12.1 will be mounted on a 33.3 m tower. If the turbine has a
cut-out speed of 13.3 m/s, how many hours of wind speed greater than 13.3 m/s will
probably be lost?

Problems
1
.
2
.
Ex. No.: 13
Design of rotor blade for horizontal axis wind mill
Date:

1. An inventor proposes to use a rotating cylinder to produce lift in a new wind

energy device. The cylinder will be D=0.75m in diameter and will be H=7.5m
high. It will rotate with a speed of n=60 rpm.
(a) Recall that circulation around a cylinder is the integral of the tangential velocity about
its perimeter. Show that the circulation is given by:

(b) Find an expression for the lift per unit height around a rotating cylinder in terms of the
free stream wind velocity, U (m/s), the rotational speed, n (rpm), and the diameter, D (m),
of the cylinder.
(c) Find the lift force produced by the cylinder in the inventor’s device in a 10 m/s
wind.

2. The operating conditions found at two different points of a blade on a wind turbine are
shown in Table.
 These conditions were determined at 0 oC (32 oF), for which the kinematic viscosity is
1.33x 10-5 m2/s. What are the Reynolds numbers found at each blade section?

3. (a) Find angle of rel.wind, pitch angle, twist angle , and c for one blade section from
r/R=0.45 to r/R=0.55 (centered on r/R=0.50) for an ideal blade (assume C d = 0, a' =
0). Assume λ= 7, B=3, R=5 m, and C l = 1and the minimum Cd/Cl occurs at a = 7
degrees.
(b) Assume that Cd/Cl actually equals 0.02 for the above blade section and that the
free stream wind speed, U, equals 10 m/s. Find Urel ; dFL1; dFD1; dFN1; dFT1; dQ1
for the blade section. Don’t forget to consider that the wind velocity is slowed down
at the rotor. Use a=1/3, a’ = 0. Assume the air density is 1.24 kg/m 3
(20 oC). (c) For the same blade section find C l, α, and a using the general strip theory
method (including angular momentum). Also find C l , α, and a if the rpm is increased
such that λ = 8. Ignore drag and tip loss. Use a graphical approach. Assume that the
empirical lift curve is Cl = 0.1143 α +0:2 (α in degrees): i.e. Cl = 0:2 at α = 0 degrees,
Cl = 1at α = 7 degrees.
 4. (a) Find angle of rel.wind, pitch angle, twist angle and c at all ten locations (r/R=0.10,
0.20, . . ., 1.0) for the Betz optimum blade. Assume λ= 7, B=3, R=5 m, and Cl = 1and
the minimum Cd/Cl occurs at a = 7 degrees.
(b) Sketch the shape (planform) of the blade, assuming that all the quarter chords lie
on a straight line.
5. The Better Wind Turbine Company wants to start marketing wind turbines. The plans
call for a 20 meter in diameter, three-bladed wind turbine. The rotor is to have its peak
power coefficient at a tip speed ratio of 6.5. The airfoil to be used has a lift coefficient
of 1.0 and a minimum drag to lift ratio at an angle of attack of 7 degrees.
(a) You, as the new blade designer, are to come up with two blade shapes as a starting
point for
the blade design. One shape assumes that there are no losses and that there is no
wake rotation. The second design is based on the optimum rotor shape assuming
that there is wake rotation (but still no losses).
(b) Find the chord length, pitch, and twist at ten stations of the blade, assuming that
the blade extends right to the center of the rotor. How do the chord lengths and the
twists compare at the tip and at the inner three blade stations?
Ex. No.: 14
Design of water pumping windmill
Date:

Design of Blade, Power output of turbine and pump:

Considering 1/4 hp power, P=186.5W
To find area required for the design of blade,

(1)

From power equation, power available is proportional to air density (1.225 kg/m 3) & is proportional
to the intercept area. Since the area is normally circular of diameter D in vertical axis aero turbines
then,

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Hence, 161.514 W (0.216 HP) power is required for pumping water under head of 1m.
Ex. No.: 15
Wind power Project Appraisal
Date:

Discounted cash flow analysis

Problems
Ex. No.: 16
Problems on wind energy economics
Date:

16.1. Cost calculation

The cost per unit of electricity generated, g, by a wind farm can be estimated using
the following formula:

where
C - Capital cost of the wind farm
R – capital recovery factor or the annual capital charge rate expressed as a fraction
E – wind farm annual energy output
M – cost of the operating and maintaining the wind farm per unit of energy output
The capital recovery factor, R is defined as

x – required rate of return net of inflation expressed as a fraction

n= number of years over which the investment in the wind farm is to be recovered

An estimate of energy, E (in kilowatt-hours), can be made using the following formula
E = h x Pr x CF x T
h – number of hours in a year , 8760
Pr – rated power of the wind turbine in kilowatts
CF - net annual capacity factor for the turbines at the site
T – number of wind turbines
The operating and maintenance cost, M is defined by:

where K is a factor representing the annual operating costs of a wind farm. The EWEA has
estimated this to be 2.5 per cent of capital cost. The operating and maintenance cost
includes manpower, consumables, spares, breakdown maintenance, insurance and also all
other statutory duties and expenses.
16.2. Annual energy output (AEO)

Qc = (UC/C)k
Qr = (UR/C)k
Qf = (UF/C)k
UC = cut-in wind speed
UR = rated wind speed
UF = furling or cut-out wind speed
K = Weibull shape factor
C = scale factor
Pe,ave = average power developed by wind machine
PeR = rated power developed by wind machine
Then, the capacity factor (CF) for the wind machine is given by,

Normalized power
16.3. Time value of money
16.3.1. Present Worth Approach
The future value of an investment C made today is given by
A1 = C (1 + i)
A2 = C (1 + i)2
A3 = C (1 + i)3
……………...
……………...
An = C (1+ i)n
where A1, A2, A3, ... , and An indicate the value in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... and nth year, respectively.
'i' is the interest rate or, as more commonly termed, the discounting rate.
In other words, the present value of a receipt after n year (An) is given by

Let us consider a uniform cash flow for n years as shown in Figure 16.1.

Present values of payment A in different years, discounted to the initial year (year 0) is,

Thus, the accumulated present value of all the payments put together is,

Above equation can be brought to standard geometric series by taking 1/(1 + i) common

z
Inflation
A rise in general price levels is known as inflation and a fall as deflation. Inflation is
usually measured by the change in a price index- either the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or
the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Price index is the ratio of the price of a stipulated basket of
goods and services at a particular year to the price in the base year (denoted as 100).

The discount rate corrected for inflation is termed the real rate of discount
(interest). The real discount rate (I) can be roughly taken as the difference between the
nominal interest rate and inflation.
Where, r is the rate of inflation
In economic evaluation of projects, it is necessary to distinguish between the real and
nominal discount/interest rates. If cash flows are adjusted for inflation and expressed in
constant money terms, the discount/interest rate used is the real discount/interest rate (I).
If the cash flows are not corrected for inflation, the discount/interest rate used is termed the
nominal discount rate (i).

The increase in the cost of a commodity, in comparison with the general

inflation, is termed the escalation e. When the escalation rate e is combined with the
inflation r, it is termed the apparent escalation rate ea, which is given by

The real rate of discount, adjusted for both the inflation and escalation, is then given by

Capital Recovery Factor

Where, d- discount rate; P- Present value; A- annual cash flow

Depreciation

Annual depreciation,
Where, S is the salvage value at the end of the life of the equipment
Life Cycle Costing
Present value of all expenses related to a specific option during its lifetime

where ACk is the annual cost or expenditure in the kth year. For constant annual costs,

Annualized life cycle cost

The ALCC is related to the LCC

In pieces of equipment which have components with different lives, the ALCC can be easily
computed as,

Cost of Wind Energy

There are three different ways in which the cost of a wind energy system is
commonly determined. They are:
1. Cost per rated power of the turbine.
2. Cost per unit rotor size
3. Cost per kWh of electricity generated.
If CT is the cost of the turbine with a rated power PR, then the cost per kW is given by

If AT is the rotor area, then cost per unit size of the turbine CA is given as

If CA is the cost of operation and EI is the kWh generated, both expressed in annual basis,
then the unit cost of wind-generated electricity is

Total annual cost of operation C A is the sum of the annual fixed costs Fc and variable costs
Vc·

Present Value of Annual Costs

Let CI be the initial investment of the project and COM be the operation and
maintenance cost. Expressing COM as a percentage m of CI

Now, discounting the operation and maintenance costs for n years to the initial year,

Including the initial investment CI the accumulated net present value of all the costs is
represented as

Yearly cost of operation of the project is

If PR is the rated power of the turbine and CF is the capacity factor, the energy generated by
the turbine in a year is
EI = 8760 PR CF
Thus, the cost of kWh wind-generated electricity is given by

Value of Wind Generated Electricity

Consider the retail energy price as the value of wind generated electricity. If the
project delivers a benefit of BA annually through electricity sales, then the accumulated
present value of all benefit over the life of the project is

Economic Merit
The merit of the project can be seen in terms of the following indices:
• Net present value (NPV): The present worth of the entire project.
• Benefit cost ratio: The benefits from the project are in proportion with the costs
involved.
• Payback period: How many years will it take to get our investment back from the
project?
• Internal rate of return (IRR): What is the real return of the project or the maximum
rate of interest at which we can arrange capital for the project?
Net Present Value
Net value of all benefits (cash inflows) minus cost (cash out flows) of the project,
discounted back to the beginning of the investment. The benefits include the income from
the sale of electricity generated. The cash outflow includes capital investment and annual
operation and maintenance costs.

If the NPV is greater than 0 the project is economically viable.

Benefit Cost Ratio

Benefit cost ratio is the ratio of the accumulated present value of all the benefits to the
accumulated present value of all costs, including the initial investment.

A project is acceptable if BCR is greater than 1.

Pay Back Period
Payback period (PBP) is the year in which the net present value of all costs equals
with the net present value of all benefits. Hence, PBP indicates the minimum period over
which the investment for the project is recovered. At PBP,
The payback period is computed by solving the above equation for n.
The project with lower payback period is preferred.
Internal Rate of Return
Internal rate of return (IRR) is defined as the discount rate at which the accumulated
present value of all the costs becomes equal to that of the benefits. In other words, with IRR
as the discount rate, the net present value of a project is zero.

IRR can be determined by trial and error method.

It is the interest rate upto which we can afford to arrange the capital for the project.
Depreciation
Depreciation refers to the reduction in value of an item over its years of use. The value of the
project at the end of its useful life period is known as junk or salvage value. There are
several ways to compute depreciation. Some extensively used methods are: (i) straight line
method;
(ii) declining balance method and (iii) sum of the years’ digit method
Straight Line Depreciation
Value of an item gets reduced at a uniform rate throughout its useful life period.

CI - capital investment for a wind turbine; S - salvage value; n- life years.

For wind energy projects, the salvage value is taken as 10 per cent of the initial cost
Declining Balance Depreciation
● Value of an asset is written off at an accelerated rate

● Allows higher rate of depreciation in the early years of the project

● Depreciation at the end of a year is considered as a constant fraction of the book

value of the project at the end of the previous year.

Where, Dt is the depreciation at the tth year and p is the rate of depreciation
● The rate of depreciation may be taken as 2/n.

● salvage value of the project is not considered

Sum of the Years' Digit Depreciation
Depreciation at the tth year is

Example 16.1
A wind turbine generates 15768 kWh electricity in a year. The generated electricity is
sold to the utility at a rate of 5 Rs./kWh. The discount rate is 5 per cent. Calculate the
present worth of electricity generated by the turbine throughout its life period of 20 years.
Solution:
Yearly revenue from the project = 15768 kWh x 5 Rs. /kWh = Rs. 78840
Accumulated present value of electricity generated is given by
 = Rs. 982520.66
= Rs. 98251
Example 16.2
An amount of Rs.10,000 was borrowed at a discount rate of 7 per cent and invested in a
project. The loan has to be settled in 10 years through uniform annual repayment. Calculate
the amount to be paid annually.
Solution
The annual payment is given by

= Rs. 1423.77
= Rs. 1424
Example 16.3
Calculate the annual repayment in example 16.2, if the rate of inflation is 3 per cent.
Solution
The real discount rate, corrected for inflation is

= 0.039
Therefore, the annual repayment is

= Rs. 1226.9
= Rs. 1227
Example 16.4
In a state the Consumer Price Index in 1995 was 140 (with 1990 as the base year).
In 1990, an investment was made in a fixed deposit account which had an interest rate of
10 per cent. What is the real interest rate obtained on the investment?

The inflation rate r can be calculated as

Hence, r = 7. 0 per cent

The true interest rate obtained on the investment (I) is given by

Hence, I = 2.8 per cent

Example 16.5
 The cost of a 6 kW wind turbine is $ 5, 50,000 other initial costs including that for
installation and grid integration are 30 per cent of the turbine cost. Useful life of the system is
20 years. Annual operation and maintenance costs plus the land rent come to 3.5 per cent of
the turbine cost. Calculate the cost of generating electricity from the turbine when it is
installed at a site having a capacity factor of 0.25. The real rate of interest may be taken as 5
per cent.
Solution
The installation cost of the turbine = Rs. 550000 x 0.3 = $ 165000
Total initial investment for the project = 550000 + 165000 = $ 715000

Cost of kWh wind-generated electricity is given by

= $ 0.039 kWh

Example 16.6
Illustrate the effect of capacity factor on the cost/kWh in Example 16.5. If a utility
company buys the generated electricity at a rate of Rs. 0.03/kWh, find out the break-even
capacity factor.

0.03
CF = 0.33

Example 16.7
Calculate the net present worth of electricity sales from the wind turbine described in
Example 16.5. Electricity price is $ 0.045 per kWh. Take the interest rate as 7 per cent,
inflation as 3 per cent and escalation as 2 per cent.

The apparent rate of escalation

= 0.05

The real rate of discount, adjusted for inflation and escalation is

= = 0.02

With the rated capacity 600 kW and the capacity factor 0.25, annual energy production is
El = 8760 PR CF = 8760 x 600 x 0.25 = 1314000 kWh
Annual revenue from the sale of electricity at a rate of $0.045/kWh = 1314000 x $ 0.045
= $ 59130
 = $ 966796

Example 16.8
A wind energy project of 2.4 MW installed capacity requires a capital investment of
$22,00,000. The site's capacity factor is 0.35. Annual operation and maintenance costs are
2.0 per cent of the initial investment with 5 per cent real rate of discount, calculate (i) net
present value,
(ii) benefit cost ratio, (iii) pay back period and (iv) internal rate of return. The useful project
life is 25 years and the local electricity price is $0.05/kWh.
Annual electricity production expected from the project
El = 8760 PR CF = 8760 x 2400 x 0.35 = 7358400 kWh
At the rate of $0.05/kWh, the annual return from the electricity sales is BA benefit delivered
annually = 7358400 x $0.05 =$ 367920

Net present value of the benefits =

= = $5185444
Net present value operation and maintenance cost

= = $620134
Net present value of the project,
= 5185444-(2200000+ 620134) = 2365310
Benefit cost ratio

= =1.84
Payback period of investment

= 8.5 years
Internal rate of return

= 13.7%

Example 16.9
The useful life of a 600 kW wind turbine costing $525000 is 20 years. Compute its
depreciation in the 5th, 10th and 15th year by (i) straight line depreciation, (ii) declining balance
depreciation, and (iii) sum of the years digit depreciation.
Solution
Straight line method
Taking the salvage value as 10 per cent of the capital, the depreciation at the 5 th
year is given by straight line method

= $ 23625
In this method, depreciation for all other years is same.
Declining balance method

p=2/20 = 0.1
= $ 34445
= $ 20340
= $ 12010
Sum of the years digit method

= $ 36000

= $ 24750

= $ 13500
Example 16.10
Levelized equivalent amount
Suppose it was necessary to replace an alternator at a cost of $1000 during the
eleventh year of operation for a machine having an assumed 25-year life, and the interest
rate as 15 per cent. Calculate the worth of $1,000 cost at the beginning (year zero) and after
25-year life.

The future value of an investment C made today

An = C (1+ i)n

The levelized equivalent amount over a 25-year life would be

= $33.25