Ch.

4: Chemical Reactions & Solution Stoichiometry

Ch.4.1 - Water, the Common Solvent

Hydration: Intermolecular attraction between polar water

molecules and the positive and negative ions of a salt.
MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Solubility: How much of a substance (solute) will dissolve in a given amount of water (solvent) at a given temperature.

Water can also dissolve non-ionic compounds if they have polar

bonds and are polar molecules: sugars, alcohols, acids, ether, ketones.

Ex.: Polar water molecules

interact strongly with the polar-
O-H bond in ethanol (C2H5OH)

Nonpolar solutes dissolve best in nonpolar solvents:

fats, steroids, wax, benzene, hexane, toluene 
CxHy molecules.
 Ch. 4.2: Nature of Aqueous Solutions - Electrolytes

• Electrolyte – a substance whose aqueous solution conducts electricity.

• Strong Electrolyte : compound completely dissociates in water (100%

ionization) and allows a strong electric current to flow.
• Ex.: soluble salts, strong acids (HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4) and
strong bases (NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2).

• Weak Electrolyte : compound that only dissociates in water to a small degree

(< 5% ionization) and allows only a small amount of current to flow.
Ex.: weak acids: acetic acid (HC2H3O2) , organic acids: citric acid, malic
acid (apples), butyric acid (rancid butter), amino acids (proteins),
ascorbic acid (Vitamin C); weak bases (NH3).
• Non-Electrolytes : compounds do not dissociate into ions and no current flows. Ex.: alcohols, sugars, soluble molecules.
 Reactions of Acids and Bases: Strong and Weak Acids
• Strong acids are strong electrolytes; completely ionized in water.
In water: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
No HCl in solution,
only H+ and Cl– ions.

• Weak acids are weak electrolytes. Only some of the dissolved molecules
dissociate; the rest remain intact as molecules.
Acetic acid in water: CH3COOH (aq) ⇄ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

⇄ :state of equilibrium where the rxn. occurs in

Only a few H+ and CH3COO– ions
both directions. in solution. Most CH3COOH
molecules remain intact.
For acetic acid, only about 1% of the CH3COOH
molecules dissociates into ions.
Some acids have more than one ionizable hydrogen atom. They ionize
in “steps” (more in Chapter 15 on Acids & Bases).
H2SO4 (aq) → H+ (aq) + HSO4– (aq)
HSO4– (aq) → H+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)
 Strong and Weak Bases

• Strong bases: Most are ionic hydroxides (Group IA and IIA, though
some IIA hydroxides aren’t very soluble).

• Weak bases: Like weak acids, they ionize partially. Ionization process
is different.
• Weak bases form OH– by accepting H+ from water …
NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + OH–
CH3NH2 + H2O → CH3NH3+ + OH–
methylamine methylammonium ion

Just a little OH– forms.

Most of the weak base remains in
the molecular form.

• NH3 , under some conditions, can also act as a weak acid (amphoteric subst.)
2 Li + 2 NH3 → 2 LiNH2 + H2
 Ch. 4.3: The Composition of Solutions

• Molarity: M = moles of solute

Liters of solution

Question 1: Calculate the molar concentration of a solution with 34.6 g of NaCl

(molar mass = 58.5 g/mol) dissolved in 125 mL of solution.

Question 2: How many grams of HCl would be required to make 50.0 mL of a

2.7 M solution?
Question 3: Given the molar concentration of the compound, find the concentration of the ions
dissolved in the solution:
(a)0.50 M Co(NO3)2 (aq) 

(b)1.0 M Fe(ClO4)3 (aq) 

Question 4: Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 45.6 g of

Fe2(SO4)3 in 475 mL water. What is the concentration of each ion?
Question 5: What would the molar concentration be if you used 27g of CaCl2 to make
500. mL of solution? What would be the number of moles of Cl- ions dissolved in the
solution?

Question 6: Which of the following solutions is the strongest electrolyte?

a) 400.0 mL of 0.10 M NaCl.

b) 300.0 mL of 0.10 M CaCl2.

c) 200.0 mL of 0.10 M FeCl3.

d) 800.0 mL of 0.10 M sucrose.

Question 7: Which of the following solutions contains the greatest number of dissolved ions? (Assume
complete solubility for all salts.)
a) One mole of potassium chloride dissolved in 1.0 L of water.

b) One mole of sodium phosphate dissolved in 1.0 L of water.

c) One mole of iron(II) nitrate dissolved in 1.0 L of water.

d) One mole of sodium hydroxide dissolved in 1.0 L of water.

e) At least two of the above solutions have an equally great number of ions.
 Dilution Process
• The process of adding water (diluting) to a standard stock solution to achieve the
molarity desired for a particular solution.
• Dilution does not change the numbers of moles of solute present.
• Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution
M1V1 = M2V2
Question 1: What volume of 11.6 M stock hydrochloric acid is needed to prepare 250.
mL of 3.0 M HCl solution?
MstockVstock = MdiluteVdilute (11.6 M)(Vstock ) = (3.0 M)(0.250 Liters)

Vstock = (3.0 M)(0.250 Liters)

Vstock = 0.065 L (65 mL)
11.6 M
Question 2: 18.5 mL of 2.3 M HCl is added to 250 mL of water. What is the
concentration of the diluted solution? (Assume volumes are additive)
Q.3: You need to make 225 mL of 0.05M H2SO4 solution. How much of a 3.0M stock
solution should you use? How much water must you add to the stock solution to obtain
the desired concentration of the diluted solution?

Q.4: You have a 4.0M stock solution of K3PO4. (a) Describe how to make 1.0L of a
0.75M solution. (b) What is the concentration of the ions in the final, diluted solution?
 Ch. 4.5: Double Displacement Rxns

The ions of two compounds exchange places in an aqueous solution to form two new
compounds.
AX + BY  AY + BX
One of the compounds formed is usually a(n):
(a) precipitate : NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
(b) insoluble gas that bubbles out of solution: ZnS(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2S(g)
(c) molecular compound, usually water: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Precipitation Reactions

A double displacement reaction in which a solid forms and separates (settles) from the
solution.
If the products are all soluble compounds, all the ions stay dissolved in the solution and
no reaction occurs, that is, nothing has really happened.

Use the “solubility rules” to determine if precipitation reaction occurs and identify the
precipitate and dissolved ions.
 Simple Rules for Solubility of Salts in Aqueous Solution

1. Alkali metal (group 1A) salts and NH4+ are all soluble.

2. Nitrates (NO3- ), chlorates (ClO3- ), acetates (C2H3O2-) are soluble.

3. Most Cl-, Br-, and I- salts are soluble (except Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+).

4. Most SO42- salts are soluble (except Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+).

5. Most OH-and S2- salts are insoluble (except Alkali metals, NH4+ , Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+).

6. Most F-, O2-, CO32-, CrO42-, PO43- salts are insoluble (except Alkali metals and NH4+ ).

** Soluble salts in aqueous solution  (aq); insoluble salts  (s)

Double replacement forming a precipitate… (Rxn. #1)

lead(II) nitrate + potassium iodide  potassium nitrate + lead(II) iodide

Molecular Equation (ME)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

Complete Ionic Equation (CIE)

Pb2+(aq) +2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq) +2I-(aq) 2K+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + PbI2(s)

Spectator Ions: NO3- & K+

Net Ionic Equation (NIE) excludes the spectator ions

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq)  PbI2(s)

 Double replacement forming a precipitate… (Rxn. #2)

Potassium chromate + barium nitrate  potassium nitrate + barium chromate

• Molecular Equation (ME):

K2CrO4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq)  2KNO3 (aq) + BaCrO4 (s)

• Complete Ionic Equation (CIE):

2K+(aq)+CrO4-2(aq)+Ba+2(aq)+2NO3- (aq) 2K+(aq)+2NO3- (aq)+BaCrO4(s)

• Net Ionic Equation (NIE):

Ba+2(aq) + CrO4-2(aq)  BaCrO4(s)

 Double replacement forming a precipitate… (Rxn. #3)

Silver nitrate reacts with sodium chloride  Silver chloride + sodium nitrate

• Molecular Equation (ME):

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

• Complete Ionic Equation (CIE):

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)  AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3- (aq)

• Net Ionic Equation (NIE):

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s)

 Stoichiometry of Solutions:
Question 1: 25 mL 0.67 M of K2SO4 is added to 35 mL of 0.40 M BaCl2 . What
is the identity of and how much precipitate is formed?
1. Molecular Equation (ME): K2SO4(aq)+ BaCl2(aq)  BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)

2. Net Ionic Equation (NIE): SO4-2(aq) + Ba+2(aq)  BaSO4(s)

3. Calculate # moles of reactants:

(a) # mol SO4-2 = (0.025L) x (0.67 mol/L) = 0.017 mol SO4-2
(b) # mol Ba+2 = (0.035L) x (0.40 mol/L) = 0.014 mol Ba+2

4. Find the LR: Since SO4-2 and Ba+2 react in a 1:1 ratio, Ba+2 is the LR.

5. Calculate # moles of product:

# mol BaSO4 = (0.014mol Ba+2) x (1mol BaSO4 /1mol Ba+2) = 0.014mol BaSO4

6. Calculate gram mass of product:

mass BaSO4 = (0.014mol BaSO4) x (233.4g /1mol BaSO4) = 3.3g BaSO4
 Stoichiometry of Solutions:
Question 2: Identify the precipitate and determine its mass when 100.0 mL 0.100M
copper(II) chloride is mixed with 100.0 mL 0.100M sodium hydroxide?
 Stoichiometry of Solutions:
Question 3: What volume of 0.204M HCl is needed to precipitate all Ag+ ions
from 50.ml of 0.0500M silver nitrate solution ?

HCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  HNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

Q4: The percent content of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in eggshell can be determined
by dissolving/reacting the shell with an acid according to the equation below:
       2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)  Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O + 2Cl-(aq)
In an experiment, 0.750g sample of eggshell is completely dissolved in 10.00 mL of 1.00M HCl. What is the mass percent
of CaCO3 (100.1 g/mol) in the eggshell sample?

1. # moles of HCl reacting with CaCO3:

# mol HCl = (0.01000L) x (1.00 mol/L) = 0.0100 mol HCl

2. # moles & mass of CaCO3 :

# mol CaCO3 = 0.0100 mol HCl (1 mol CaCO3 / 2 mol HCl ) = 0.00500 mol CaCO3
mass of CaCO3 = 0.00500 mol CaCO3 x (100.1g/mol) = 0.500g CaCO3

3. Mass % of CaCO3 = (0.500g / 0.750g) x 100 = 66.7%

Q.5: We mix 2.00L solution of 2.00M AgNO3 with 3.00L
solution of 1.00M Na2CrO4.

(a) What precipitate forms and which reactant, if either, is the limiting reactant?
(b) Find the molar concentration of all the ions in the final solution.
(c) Find the mass and molar concentration of the precipitate in the solution.
Q.5: We mix 2.00L solution of 2.00M AgNO3 with 3.00L solution of 1.00M
Na2CrO4.
(b) Find the molar concentration of all the ions in the final solution.
(c) Find the mass and molar concentration of the precipitate in the solution.
 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Reactions
(Brønsted-Lowry)
Acids:
• Proton (H+) donors
• pH < 7; Sour taste
• pH indicators: blue litmus turns red;
methyl orange turns red
• React with active metals, producing H2 and
a salt
• Neutralize bases producing a salt and H2O.

Bases:
• Proton (H+) acceptors;
–
• Often releasing (OH ) in the solution;
• pH > 7; Bitter taste
• pH indicators: red litmus turns blue;
phenolphthalein turns pink
• Solutions of bases feel slippery
• Neutralize acids producing a salt and H2O.
 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Reactions (Brønsted-Lowry)

(A) For a strong acid and strong base neutralization reaction:

HCl(aq) + KOH(aq)  KCl (aq) + H2O(l)
•Complete Ionic Equation:
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + K+(aq) + OH–(aq)  K+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)
•Net Ionic Equation: H+(aq) + OH–(aq)  H2O(l)

(B) For a weak acid and strong base reaction:

HC2H3O2 (aq) + KOH(aq)  KC2H3O2 (aq) + H2O(l)
•Complete Ionic Equation:
HC2H3O2 (aq) + K+(aq) + OH–(aq)  K+(aq) + C2H3O2–(aq) + H2O(l)
•NIE: HC2H3O2 (aq) + OH–(aq)  C2H3O2–(aq) + H2O(l)

–
** OH ions in solution react with any weak acid, bonding with H+ ions and
forming H2O(l).
 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Reactions (Brønsted-Lowry)

(C) For a strong acid and weak base neutralization reaction:

H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

•Complete Ionic Equation:

2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2NH3 (aq)  2NH4+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

•Net Ionic Equation: 2H+(aq) + 2NH3 (aq)  2NH4+(aq)

 Indicators
• Substances that tell if a solution is acidic or basic or, when an acid-base neutralization reaction is complete.
Example: Phenol red is …

… yellow in
acidic solution
… orange in … and red/purple
neutral solution in basic solution.

Example: Phenolphathalein is …
… and pink in
… colorless in
basic solution.
acidic solution

Ex.: Red cabbage juice is …

 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Neutralization Reactions

Question 1: What volume of 0.100M HCl solution is needed to neutralize

25.0 mL of 0.350M NaOH?

1. Molecular Equation (ME): HCl(aq)+ NaOH(aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

2. Net Ionic Equation (NIE): H+(aq) + OH–(aq)  H2O(l)

3. Calculate # moles of reactants:

# mol OH- = (0.025L) x (0.350 mol/L) = 0.00875 mol OH- (NaOH)

4. Calculate # moles of H+ (HCl) needed to react with NaOH:

# mol H+ = (0.000875mol OH-) x (1mol H+ /mol OH-) = 0.00875mol H+ (HCl)

5. Calculate volume of 0.100M HCL solution:

Volume HCl = (0.00875mol HCl) / (0.100 mol/Liter) = 0.0875L = 87.5 mL
 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Neutralization Reactions

Q2: 28.0 mL of 0.250M HNO3 and 53.0 mL of 0.320M KOH are mixed.
Calculate the amount of water formed in the resulting solution. What is the
–
concentration of H or OH ions in excess after the reaction is complete?
+

1. Molecular Equation (ME): HNO3 (aq)+ KOH(aq)  KNO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

2. Net Ionic Equation (NIE): H+(aq) + OH–(aq)  H2O(l)

3. Calculate # moles of reactants:

# mol H+ = (0.028L) x (0.250 mol/L) = 0.00700 mol H+
# mol OH- = (0.053L) x (0.320 mol/L) = 0.0170 mol OH-

4. Find the LR: Since H+ and OH- react in a 1:1 ratio, H+ is the LR.

5. Mass of H2O: 0.00700 mol H+  0.00700 mol H2O

mass of H2O = (0.00700mol H2O) x (18.02g /1mol H2O ) = 0.126g H2O

 Ch. 4.8: Acid-Base Neutralization Reactions

Q2: 28.0 mL of 0.250M HNO3 and 53.0 mL of 0.320M KOH are mixed.
Calculate the amount of water formed in the resulting solution. What is the
–
concentration of H or OH ions in excess after the reaction is complete?
+

6. Moles of OH- in excess:

(a) 0.00700 mol H+  0.00700 mol OH-
(b) moles of OH- in excess = 0.0170 – 0.00700 = 0.0100 mol OH-

7. Molar Concentration of OH- :

Solution Volume = 28.0 mL + 53.0 mL = 81.0 mL (0.0810 L)

M OH- = (0.0100 mol OH-) / (0.0810 L) = 0.123 M OH-

 Titration (Volumetric Analysis)
• A solution of known molar concentration (titrant) is gradually mixed and reacts with a
given volume of a solution whose concentration is to be determined (analyte).
• The volume of titrant added is carefully and precisely measured.
• A color indicator , initially added to the analyte soln., tells when all the analyte has
reacted and the reaction is complete.

• Titrant – solution of known concentration (standard) used in the titration

• Analyte – substance being analyzed for its concentration.
• Equivalence point – enough titrant added to react completely with the given volume of the
analyte.
• Endpoint – the indicator changes color showing the equivalence point has been reached.
 An Acid–Base Titration

A measured portion of Base solution of known

acid solution is placed concentration is slowly
in the flask, and an added from the buret.
indicator is added.

When the indicator changes color,

we have added just enough base to
react completely with the acid.
Question 1: When 22.0 mL of hydrochloric acid of unknown concentration is titrated
with 0.2150M NaOH, the end-point is reached when 22.40 mL of the base has been
added. What is the molar concentration of the acid?

1. Molecular Equation (ME): HCl(aq)+ NaOH(aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

2. Net Ionic Equation (NIE): H+(aq) + OH–(aq)  H2O(l)

3. # moles of titrant (OH-) added to reach the equivalence point:

# mol OH- = (0.02240L) x (0.2150 mol/L) = 0.004816 mol OH- (NaOH)

4. # moles of H+ (HCl) reacting with OH- (NaOH):

# mol H+ = # mol OH- = 0.004816 mol H+ (HCl)

5. Molar Concentrationolume of the HCl solution:

MHCl = (0.004816 mol HCl) / (0.0220 Liter) = 0.219M
Question 2: A titration of an aqueous solution with 0.3518g benzoic acid (HC7H5O2 )
(122.1g/1mol) required 10.59 mL of 0.1546M NaOH to reach the end point for
complete neutralization. Calculate the mass percent of HC7H5O2 in the original sample.

1. ME: HC7H5O2(aq) + NaOH - (aq)  NaC7H5O2 (aq) + H2O(l)

2. NIE: HC7H5O2(aq) + OH - (aq)  C7H5O2- (aq) + H2O(l)

3. # moles of OH- reacting with HC7H5O2:

# mol OH- = (0.01059L) x (0.1546 mol/L) = 0.001637 mol OH-

4. # moles & mass of HC7H5O2 :

# mol HC7H5O2 = # mol OH- = 0.001637 mol
mass of HC7H5O2= 0.001637 mol x (122.1g/1mol) = 0.1999g

5. Mass % of HC7H5O2: (0.1999g / 0.3518g) x 100 = 56.82%

 Titration –Precipitation Rxn. (Volumetric Analysis)
Q3.: It takes 37.50mL of 0.152M sodium chromate to titrate 25.00mL solution of silver
nitrate. Calculate the molarity of the silver nitrate solution.

1. ME: Na2CrO4(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq)  2NaNO3(aq) + Ag2CrO4(s)

2. NIE: CrO42-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq)  Ag2CrO4(s)

2-
3. # moles of titrant (CrO4 ) added to reach the equivalence point:
2- 2-
# mol CrO4 = (0.03750L) x (0.152 mol/L) = 0.00570 mol CrO4 (Na2CrO4)
2-
4. # moles of Ag+ (AgNO3) reacting with CrO4 (Na2CrO4):
2-
# mol Ag+ = 2 x (# mol CrO4 ) = 2 x 0.00570 = 0.0114 mol Ag+ (AgNO3)

5. Molar Concentrationolume of the AgNO3 solution:

MAgNO3 = (0.0114 mol AgNO3) / (0.02500 Liter) = 0.456M