Chapter 13

The Respiratory
System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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 Air Movements

 Respiratory
 Rhythmicity (involuntary)
 Nonrhythmic (voluntary)
 Non respiratory
 Speaking
 Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris
 Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
 Laughing—similar to crying
 Hiccup—sudden inspirations
 Yawn—very deep inspiration

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Table 13.1 Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements
 Respiratory Sounds

 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

 Normal sounds; sound of air flow
1. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing through large
passageways such as the trachea and bronchi
2. Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air filling alveoli
 Abnormal sounds; obstruction of air (decreasing airways) solid
or watery, obstruction, inflammation, infection, fluid, asthma
1. rhonchi (a low pitched) dry/wet
2. crackles (a high pitch)
3. wheezing (a high-pitched whistling sound caused by narrowing of the
bronchial tubes)
4. stridor (a harsh, vibratory sound caused by narrowing of the upper airway)

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 Respiratory Sounds

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 External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
 Gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion
 External respiration; between the alveoli and
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas exchange)
 Internal respiration; between the blood and tissue cells
(systemic capillary gas exchange)
 Movement of the gas is toward the area of lower
concentration

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Figure 13.10 Gas exchanges in external and internal respiration.

Inspired air: Alveoli

of lungs:

CO2 O2
O2 CO2 O2 CO2

External
respiration

Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries Alveolar
capillaries veins

Blood Blood
leaving leaving
tissues and lungs and
entering entering
lungs: tissue
capillaries:

Heart
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Tissue
capillaries
Systemic Systemic
veins arteries

Internal
respiration CO2 O2

Tissue cells:

O2 CO2
Figure 13.11a The loading and unloading of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body.

(a) External respiration in the lungs

(pulmonary gas exchange)
External
Oxygen is loaded into the blood, and
Respiration
carbon dioxide is unloaded.
 Oxygen is loaded into
Alveoli (air sacs) the blood
O2 CO2
 Oxygen diffuses from
the oxygen-rich air of
the alveoli to the
oxygen-poor blood of
Loading
of O2 Unloading the pulmonary
of CO2
capillaries
Hb  O2 HbO2 HCO3  H H2CO3 CO2  H2O
 Carbon dioxide is
(Oxyhemoglobin
is formed)
Bicar- Carbonic Water unloaded out of the
bonate acid
ion blood
Plasma
 Carbon dioxide diffuses
Red blood cell from the blood of the
Pulmonary capillary
pulmonary capillaries to
the alveoli
Figure 13.11a The loading and unloading of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body.

(a) External respiration in the lungs Gas Transport in the Blood

(pulmonary gas exchange)
 O2 transport in the blood
Oxygen is loaded into the blood, and  Most O2 travels attached to Hb and
carbon dioxide is unloaded. forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
 A small dissolved amount is carried in
Alveoli (air sacs) the plasma
 CO2 transport in the blood
O2 CO2
 Most CO2 is transported in the plasma
as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
 A small amount is carried inside red
Loading blood cells on Hb, but at different
of O2 Unloading binding sites from those of oxygen
of CO2
 For CO2 to diffuse out of blood into the
alveoli, it must be released from its
Hb  O2 HbO2 HCO3  H H2CO3 CO2  H2O
bicarbonate form:
(Oxyhemoglobin Bicar- Carbonic Water  Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
is formed) bonate acid  Combine with hydrogen ions
ion
Plasma
 Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
 Carbonic acid splits to form water +
Red blood cell CO2
 CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli
Pulmonary capillary
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Figure 13.11b The loading and unloading of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body.

(b) Internal respiration in the body

tissues (systemic capillary gas exchange)
Internal Respiration
Oxygen is unloaded and carbon  Exchange of gases
dioxide is loaded into the blood.
between blood and
tissue cells
Tissue cells
CO2  An opposite reaction
O2
from what occurs in
Loading
the lungs
Unloading
of CO2
of O2  Carbon dioxide
diffuses out of tissue
cells to blood (called
CO2  H2O H2CO3 H  HCO3 loading)
Water Carbonic Bicar-
HbO2 Hb  O2
 Oxygen diffuses from
acid bonate
Plasma ion blood into tissue
(called unloading)
Systemic capillary

Red blood cell

 Control of Respiration

 Neural regulation: setting the basic rhythm

 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to and from the
brain by phrenic and intercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in the
medulla and pons
 Medulla—sets basic rhythm of breathing and contains a
pacemaker (self-exciting inspiratory center) called the ventral
respiratory group (VRG)
 Pons—smoothes out respiratory rate
 Respiration rate:
 Normal (eupnea) - 12 to 15 respirations per minute
 Hyperpnea (tachypnea) - Increased respiratory rate, often due
to extra oxygen needs

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Figure 13.12 Neural control of respiration.

Breathing control centers:

• Pons centers
• Medulla centers

Afferent Efferent nerve impulses from

impulses to medulla trigger contraction of
medulla inspiratory muscles:
• Phrenic nerves
• Intercostal nerves
Breathing control
centers stimulated by:

CO2 and H increase Nerve impulse

from O2 sensor Intercostal
in tissue. muscles
indicating O2
decrease Diaphragm

O2 sensor
in aortic body
of aortic arch
 Control of Respiration

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and excitement

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 Control of Respiration

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth (continued)
 Chemical factors: CO2 levels
 The body’s need to rid itself of CO2 is the most
important stimulus for breathing
 Increased levels of carbon dioxide (and thus, a
decreased or acidic pH) in the blood increase the rate
and depth of breathing
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata

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 Control of Respiration

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth (continued)
 Chemical factors: oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are
detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and common
carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla
 Oxygen is the stimulus for those whose systems have
become accustomed to high levels of carbon dioxide as
a result of disease

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 Control of Respiration

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth (continued)
 Chemical factors (continued)
 Hyperventilation
 Rising levels of CO2 in the blood (acidosis) result in
faster, deeper breathing
 Exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
 May result in apnea and dizziness and lead to alkalosis

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 Control of Respiration

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth (continued)
 Chemical factors (continued)
 Hypoventilation
 Results when blood becomes alkaline (alkalosis)
 Extremely slow or shallow breathing
 Allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood

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 Control of Respiration

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Control of Respiration
 Respiratory Disorders

 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
 Shared features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have a history of smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes progressively
worse
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are
common
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic, retain carbon
dioxide and have respiratory acidosis, and ultimately
develop respiratory failure

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 Respiratory Disorders

 Chronic bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes
severely inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
 Patients become cyanotic and are sometimes called
“blue bloaters” as a result of chronic hypoxia and
carbon dioxide retention

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 Respiratory Disorders

 Emphysema
 Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining alveoli enlarge
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis, and lungs
lose elasticity
 Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale; some
air remains in the lungs
 Sufferers are often called “pink puffers” because
oxygen exchange is efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently
expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease

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Homeostatic Imbalance 13.13 The pathogenesis of COPD.

• Tobacco smoke
• Air pollution

Continual bronchial Breakdown of elastin in

irritation and connective tissue of lungs
inflammation

Chronic bronchitis Emphysema

• Excessive mucus • Destruction of alveolar
produced walls
• Chronic productive
• Loss of lung elasticity
cough

• Airway obstruction
or air trapping
• Dyspnea
• Frequent infections

Respiratory
failure
 Respiratory Disorders

 Lung cancer
 Leading cause of cancer death for men and women
 Nearly 90 percent of cases result from smoking
 Aggressive cancer that metastasizes rapidly
 Three common types
1. Adenocarcinoma
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma

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 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks after birth
 This change from nonfunctional to functional
respiration depends on surfactant
 Surfactant lowers surface tension so the alveoli do not
collapse
 Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy, around 28 to 30
weeks

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 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
 Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per minute
 Infants: 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
 Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
 Rate often increases again in old age

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 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Asthma
 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive bronchiole
passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and
wheezing

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 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a result of
external factors, such as infections and substances
that physically block respiratory passageways

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 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Aging effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease
 Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit sleep apnea
 More risks of respiratory tract infection

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