GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Ms. Almira B. Gacutan

Did you know that when we read a
nutrition label and see 0g of a particular
nutrient, such as trans fat, we expect to
be eating none of that nutrient?
Manufacturer’s can list an item as having
0g trans fat per serving if the food
contains less than 0.5g.
There are many guidelines for health claims on
products and food labeling. It is important to
be familiar with these guidelines so that you
know what it means when you buy a product
labeled ‘Light’, ‘Fat Free’, etc.  
Did you know that men need more
protein than women?
How much protein you need depends on your
sex, age, how much you weigh, how active you
are, and other things. But yes, guys usually
need more protein than women. An average
man needs about 56 grams of protein a day.
Women need 46 grams. 
Did you know that Athletes need more
protein than couch potatoes?
How active you are affects how much protein
your body needs. Athletes may need slightly
more protein than non-athletes. They need it to
repair and rebuild muscles after all that work. 
Did you know that A high-protein diet
can help you lose weight?
Our bodies don't store proteins the way
they store carbs and fats. That's why you
need a steady supply of protein every
day.
Some studies show that replacing protein for
carbs may help you lose weight. High-protein
foods move more slowly through your digestive
system. That helps you feel full longer after you
eat. And your body burns more calories
digesting protein than digesting carbs.  Protein
also can help you avoid hunger pangs by
keeping your blood sugar levels steady. 
Did you know that chewing gum and nail
polishes are also common products that
contain high levels of lipids.
Did you know that fats are good for us too? .
 Fats are actually a good thing for you to eat. The
problem is that many people eat too many bad
fats and not enough good fats. Lipids help with
the strength of cell membranes, so a few fats in
regulation are absolutely necessary for good
health. As with any food product, too much isn’t
as good for you, but a good diet can be up to 30%
of fats that can lipids.
 DNA FACTS

Even though it codes for all the

information that makes up an
organism, DNA is built using only
four building blocks, 
the nucleotides adenine, guanine,
thymine, and cytosine.
 DNA FACTS

Every human being shares 99% of

their DNA with every other
human.
 DNA FACTS

If you put all the DNA molecules in

your body end to end, the DNA
would reach from the Earth to the
Sun and back over 600 times (100
trillion times six feet divided by 92
million miles).
 DNA FACTS

A parent and child share 99.5% of

the same DNA.
 DNA FACTS

You have 98% of your DNA in

common with a chimpanzee.
 DNA FACTS

DNA is a fragile molecule. About a thousand

times a day, something happens to it to cause
errors. This could include errors during
transcription, damage from ultraviolet light, or
any of a host of other activities.

There are many repair mechanisms, but some

damage isn't repaired. This means you carry
mutations! Some of the mutations cause no
harm, a few are helpful, while others can cause
diseases, such as cancer.
 DNA FACTS

Scientists at Cambridge University believe

humans have DNA in common with the mud
worm and that it is the closest invertebrate
genetic relative to us. In other words, you
have more in common, genetically speaking,
with a mud worm than you do with a spider
or octopus or cockroach.
 DNA FACTS

Humans and cabbage share about 40-

50% common DNA.
 DNA FACTS

Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in

1869, although scientists did not
understand DNA was the genetic
material in cells until 1943. Prior to
that time, it was widely believed that
proteins stored genetic information.
 What are
Biomolecules?
 What are
Biomolecules?

CARBS

PROTEIN
NUCLEIC
ACID

LIPID
 What is
Biomolecule?

micromolecules
Biological
molecule
Living organisms

Present
macromolecules
 PROTEINS

The most abundant organic compounds found in

any living organisms.

15 % of the body’s dry weight

Form the structural parts of cells and tissues as

the keratin in hairs, collagen in connective
tissues, myosin and actin in muscle cells.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

The most abundant organic compounds found in

any living organisms.

15 % of the body’s dry weight

Form the structural parts of cells and tissues as

the keratin in hairs, collagen in connective
tissues, myosin and actin in muscle cells.
 PROTEINS

Macronutrients that support the growth and

maintenance of body tissues. 

Amino acids are the basic building blocks of

proteins.

2 Classification:
 Essential
 Non-essential 
 TYPES OF PROTEINS

Essential amino acids are obtained from protein-

rich foods such as meat, legumes and poultry,

Non-essential are synthesized naturally in your

body. 
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Hormonal - are protein-based chemicals secreted

by the cells of the endocrine glands. Usually
transported through the blood.

- act as chemical messengers that

transmit signals from one cell to another.

- example of a hormonal protein is

insulin, which is secreted by the pancreas to
regulate the levels of blood sugar in your body.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Enzymatic - accelerate metabolic processes in

your cells, including liver functions, stomach
digestion, blood clotting and converting glycogen
to glucose.

- example is digestive enzymes that

break down food into simpler forms that your
body can easily absorb.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Structural - also known as fibrous proteins,

structural proteins are necessary components of
your body. 

- They include collagen, keratin and

elastin. Collagen forms the connective framework
of your muscles, bones, tendons, skin and
cartilage. Keratin is the main structural component
in hair, nails, teeth and skin.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Defensive - Antibodies, or immunoglobulin, are a

core part of your immune system, keeping
diseases at bay.

- Antibodies are formed in a specific

white blood cells called B Lymphocytes in
response to a foreign substance in the body called
antigen. It attacks bacteria, viruses and other
harmful microorganisms, rendering them inactive,
lysis or aggregate.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Storage - store mineral ions such as potassium in

your body. Iron, for example, is an ion required for
the formation of hemoglobin, the main structural
component of red blood cells. 

- Ferritin - a storage protein -- regulates

and guards against the adverse effects of excess
iron in your body. 

- Ovalbumin and casein are storage

proteins found in breast milk and egg whites,
respectively, that play a huge role in embryonic
development.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Transport - carry vital materials to the cells.

- Hemoglobin, for example, carries

oxygen to body tissues from the lungs.

- Serum albumin carries fats in your

bloodstream.
- myoglobin absorbs oxygen from
hemoglobin and then releases it to the muscles.

- Calbindin is another transport protein

that facilitates the absorption of calcium from the
intestinal walls.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Receptor - control the substances that enter and

leave the cells, including water and nutrients. 

- Some receptors activate enzymes,

while others stimulate endocrine glands to secrete
epinephrine and insulin to regulate blood sugar
levels.
TYPES OF PROTEINS

Contractile - also known as motor proteins,

contractile proteins regulate the strength and
speed of heart and muscle contractions. 

- these proteins are actin and myosin.

- contractile proteins can cause heart

complications if they produce severe contractions.
 ENZYMES

- special types of proteins

- speed up chemical reactions without
itself being chemically changed at the end of the
process
- the digestion of food involved
different enzymes like amylases for starches,
proteases for proteins, and lipases for lipids.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
ENZYMES

 Enzymes are highly specific. Can catalyze only a

specific chemicl reaction. Ex: Maltase – Maltose in
to simple sugars.

 Temperature – most enzymes are active only at

body temperatures (37 degree C) but are inactive
at very low temperatures. Different enzymes have
an optimum working temperature.

pH affects an enzyme reaction. Amylase works

best at a neutral pH=7 and becomes denatured
(destroyed) at highly acidic or alkaline conditions.
 CARBOHYDRATES

- are organic compounds that serve as the main

source of energy in all organisms.

- made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

 THREE (3) MAIN GROUPS
OF CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides – are simple sugars with only

one sugar unit.

Ex:

 Glucose – mammalian blood

 Fructose – plants – sweetest sugar found in fruits
 Galactose – milk
 Ribose – forms the backbones of RNA
Deoxyribose – forms the backbones of DNA
 Mannose – important in human metabolism
 THREE (3) MAIN GROUPS
OF CARBOHYDRATES

Disaccharides – are complex sugars made up of

two molecules of monosaccharides chemically
joined together.
Ex:
 Lactose – sugar composed of galactose and
glucose that is found in milk.

 Sucrose – common table sugar composed of

glucose and fructose.

 Maltose – malt sugar, occurs in cereals and

sprouting grains, composed of two glucose
molecules
 THREE (3) MAIN GROUPS
OF CARBOHYDRATES

Polysaccharides – are complex sugars made up of chains

or branches of monosaccharides formed by condensation
reactions.
– acting as storage (stores energy) or
structural (parts of cell structures) molecules.

Ex:
 Starch – plant storage carbohydrate, composed entirely
of 200 glucose molecules, found in potato tubers,
cassava, carrots, corn and cereals.
 Glycogen – animal storage carbohydrate which
accumulates in the liver and muscle cells of vertebrates.
Made up entirely of glucose molecules.
 THREE (3) MAIN GROUPS
OF CARBOHYDRATES

Polysaccharides
Ex:
 Starch – plant storage carbohydrate, composed entirely of 200
glucose molecules, found in potato tubers, cassava, carrots, corn and
cereals.
 Glycogen – animal storage carbohydrate which accumulates in the
liver and muscle cells of vertebrates. Made up entirely of glucose
molecules.
 Cellulose – most abundant organic compound on earth, found in the
cell wall of plant cells, for support and protection for plant cells, source
of fiber, cannot be easily digest.
 Chitin – a structural polysaccharide found in the outer coverings of
crustaceans and insects. It has a protective and supportive function.
 LIPIDS

- are organic substances that include fats and fat-like

substances such as phospholipids, waxes, steroids,
sphingolipids and others.

- are generally hydrophobic substances and are insoluble

in water but are soluble in organic solvents such as
benzene, ether, and chloroform.

- Composed of 1 glyceral and 3 fatty acids

- like carbohydrates, lipids are also made of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen but they contain less oxygen in
proportion to hydrogen .
 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS IN LIVING
ORGANISMS

- Source of storage of energy

- Essential parts of cell structures such as cell membranes

- An insulating material to prevent heat loss and

protection against extreme cold.

- Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and hormones

- Prevents water loss from skin surface

 TWO (2) TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

 Saturated fatty acids – are solid at room temperature.

They are most found in animals.

Ex: Lard, margarine, and butter

 Unsaturated fatty acids – occur in liquid state at room

temperature. They are found in plants.

Ex: Vegetable oil and corn oil

*Unsaturated fats are believed to be healthier sources

of fats compared to saturated forms.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF LIPIDS

 Phospholipids –
Waxes – the cuticle covering the surfaces of leaves and
stems of plants and protective coverings of the skin and
fur of some animals
Steroids – Cholesterol, bile salts, sex hormones, and
vitamin D
Triglycerides – blood fats, circulate in our bloodstream
along with cholesterol. Meat and plant oils. Too much can
increase our risk of heart and blood vessel diseases.
 Sphingolipids – specifically found in the brain, lungs and
nerve tisues. They serve as surfactants that help reduce
tension on the lungs thus maintaining its right shape.
 NUC
LEIC
ACID

– are organic compounds that function for the stotorage

of genetic information which is transmitted from one
generation to another.

– It is the physical carrier of inheritance that is passed

from parents to offspring.

– protein synthesis as they carry the code needed in the

formation of specific proteins.
 NUC
LEIC
ACID

2 Types of Nucleic Acid

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 Ribonucleic Acid

* Both types of nucleic acids are made up of basic

building blocks called a nucleotide.
* A nucleotide is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogeneous base.
* The nitrogeneous bases are either double-ringed
purines (guanine (G) and adenine (A)) or single-ringed
pyrimidines, (cytocine (C) and thymine (T)) and uracil (U)
 NUC
LEIC
ACID

Differences Between a DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Strand Double Stranded Single Stranded
Nitrogenous Adenine Thymine
Cytosine Guanine
Adenine Uracil
Cytosine Guanine

Location Mostly in the Mostly in the

nucleus but may cytoplasm but may
also be found in also be found in the
cytoplasm and nucleus
mitochondria
 NUC
LEIC
ACID
James Watson & Francic Crick – first to
describe DNA as double stranded helix
molecules

The backbone of the helix consists of

alternating sugars and phosphates, while the
steps of the ladder are made up of
nitrogenous base pairs.

Specific pairing forms a uniform structure

within the entire length of a long helix.

Hydrogen bonds connect the nitrogenous base

pairs together making the double helix highly
stable.
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