Biomolecules

Monomers and Polymers

 • Macromolecules are
actually made up of
even smaller
Monomers subunits. Each
subunit of a
& Polymers macromolecule is
called a monomer.
• The macromolecules
themselves are
called polymers,
because they are
made up of many of
these subunits.
CARBOHYDRATES
What are Carbohydrates?

5
I. CARBOHYDRATES
• are an important source of
energy.
• Has a monomer
monosaccharide
• provide structural support for
cells and help with
communication between cells.
• Made up of CHO
 Types of
Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
– monosaccharides
– disaccharides
Complex Carbohydrates
– oligosaccharides
– polysaccharides
• glycogen
• starches
• fibers

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 8
Monosaccharides:
Single Sugars
 Monosaccharides: Single Sugars

Fructose
– sweetest of the sugars
– occurs naturally in fruits & honey,
“fruit sugar”
– combines with glucose to form
sucrose

Galactose
– combines with glucose to form
lactose, “milk sugar”

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 Disaccharides

Sucrose (“table sugar”)

– glucose + fructose

Lactose (“milk sugar”)

– glucose + galactose

Maltose (“malt sugar”)

– glucose + glucose

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 Complex Carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides
– short carbohydrate chains of 3 - 10
monosaccharides
– found in legumes and human milk
– Examples:
cannot be broken down by human
• raffinose
enzymes, though can be digested
• stachyose by colonic bacteria

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 Complex Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
• long carbohydrate chains of
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
– alpha () bonds (starch)
– beta () bonds (found in fiber)

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 amylose
Complex Carbohydrates

Starch amylopectin
– plant storage form of
carbohydrate
– long branched or
unbranched chains of
glucose
• amylose
• amylopectin

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 Complex Carbohydrates
Glycogen
– highly branched chains
of glucose units
– animal storage form of
carbohydrate
• found in LIVER and
MUSCLE
• Humans store ~ 100g in
liver; ~ 400g in muscle
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 Complex
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Dietary Fiber
– non-digestible carbohydrates
(chains of monosaccharides)
and lignin that are intact and
intrinsic in plants (includes
oligosaccharides)
Functional Fiber
– isolated, non-digestible
carbohydrates that have
beneficial physiological effects
in humans 15
 Complex Carbohydrates

Fiber cont.
• types of non-starch
polysaccharides include:

cellulose
hemicelluloses
pectins
gums & mucilages
-glucans
chitin & chitosan
lignans

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Classification of Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide
 Regulation of Blood Glucose
Optimal functioning of the body is dependant on
keeping levels of glucose within certain parameters.
Elevated blood glucose = Hyperglycemia
Low blood glucose = Hypoglycemia
The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is primarily responsible for
regulating blood glucose. The two main hormones are
INSULIN and GLUCAGON.

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Regulation of Blood Glucose

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 Diabetes Mellitus
• a disorder of energy metabolism due to failure of
insulin to regulate blood glucose
• results in hyperglycemia
• acute symptoms include thirst, increased urine
production, hunger
• long term consequences include increased risk of
heart disease, kidney disease, blindness, neural
damage
• two forms: Type I and Type II

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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type I
• accounts for about 10% of cases
• occurs when  cells of the pancreas are destroyed
– insulin cannot be synthesized
• without insulin, blood glucose levels rise because the
tissues are unable to access the glucose
• death occurs shortly after onset unless given
injections of insulin

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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type II
• occurs when cells of body are unable to respond to
insulin
• called “insulin insensitivity” or “insulin resistance”
• blood glucose levels rise
• insulin secretion increases in an attempt to
compensate
– leads to hyperinsulinemia

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 Digestion & Absorption

1. Mouth
• chewing
• salivary amylase
2. Stomach
• fibers remain in the
stomach longer, delays
gastric emptying
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 Digestion & Absorption

Small Intestine
• pancreas secretes enzyme pancreatic amylase
• enzymes located on the cell membranes of the
intestinal epithelial cells complete digestion

maltase
maltose glucose + glucose
sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose
lactase
lactose glucose + galactose
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28
 Small Intestine cont.
• only monosaccharides can be
absorbed
– glucose & galactose absorbed
by ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Digestion & – fructose absorbed by
Absorption FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• all three monosaccharides travel
in the portal vein to the liver
• three fates of glucose at the liver
– Energy, storage as glycogen,
released to blood

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 Large Intestine
• resistant starches and fibers
Digestion & may be digested by bacteria
Absorption – produces short chain fatty
acids
• absorbed by the
intestine and used for
energy (dietary fiber
yields about 2 kcal/g)

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 Include a diverse group of
compounds that are
nonpolar in nature.

Fatty compounds made

LIPIDS of C H O, don’t interact
with water (hydrophobic)
• Cell membranes are composed
of two lipid layers, which keep
water from crossing
Functions of lipids have include:

insulation of heat,

storing energy

protection

dissolves fat-soluble vitamins

cellular communication.
 CLASSIFICATIONS

FATS
AND WAXES
OILS

PHOSPHOLIPIDS STEROIDS
 Fats and Oils
• Fat- consists of glycerol and fatty acids
• Glycerol- an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons,
five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups.
• Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a
carboxyl group is attached, hence the name fatty acid.

• Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides

• Examples are:
- Palmitic acid- a saturated fatty acid derived from the palm
tree
- Arachidic acid- derived from Arachis hypogea
 Classification of Fatty Acids
1. Saturated Fatty Acids- there are only single bonds between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
- saturated with hydrogen
- example is stearic acid
- mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes
- plants store fat and oil in their seeds and used as source of
energy during seedling development
 2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid- the
hydrocarbon chain contains
double bond
- Usually of plant origin
• Example: Oleic acid
• Liquid at room temperature and
Classification are called oils
of Fatty Acids a. Monounsaturated fat- there is
one double bond in the
molecule (e.g. olive oil)
b. Polyunsaturated fat- there is
more than one double bond
(e.g. canola oil)
 Trans Fats

• In the food industry, oils are artificially

hydrogenated to make them semi-solid
and of a consistency desirable for many
processed food products.
• Margarine, some types of peanut butter,
and shortening contains artificially
hydrogenated trans fats.
• Recent studies have shown that an
increase of trans fats may lead to an
increase in levels of low-density
lipoproteins (LDL) or bad cholesterol.
• Could cause atherosclerosis
 • Essential fatty acids that could not be
synthesized by the human body
Omega • There are only 2: Omega-3 and Omega-6
Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids • Omega-3 fatty acids- are polyunsaturated
fatty acids and are called omega-3 because
the 3rd carbon from the end of the
hydrocarbon chain is connected to its
neighboring carbon by a double bond.
• Reduce the risk of sudden death from heart
attacks and may help reduce the risk of some
cancers in animals
Examples of omega-3 fatty acids
• Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA)
• Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA)
• Docosahexanoic acid (DHA)
 WAXES
• Made up of long
fatty acid chains
esterified to long
chain alcohols.
• Examples: feathers of
aquatic
birds and leaf surfaces
of some plants
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• phospholipid is the
primary molecule found
in the membranes of
cells.
• Lipids in water will
arrange themselves to
hide their hydrophobic
tails
HYDROPHILIC HYDROPHOBIC
• Amphipathic
• Phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylserine-
phospholipids in our
plasma membrane
 STEROIDS
• Have fused ring structure
• All have four-linked carbon rings and several of them
like cholesterol have a short tail
• Cholesterol- most common steroid
- mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor
to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and
estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads and
endocrine glands.
- also a precursor to Vitamin D and bile salts, which
help in the emulsification of fats and their
subsequent absorption by cells.
- component of the plasma membrane
 Anabolic steroids and related
substances pose health risks
• Anabolic steroids are usually synthetic variants
of testosterone
• Use of these substances
can cause serious health
problems

Figure 3.10
Classification of Lipids
OTHER LIPIDS
 III. PROTEINS

• Structural building blocks of cells in all tissues (not just

muscle!)
• Polymers composed of 300 – 100k+ monomers
• Monomers are called amino acid
• There are 20 amino acids, many of which must come
from your diet
• 50% dry weight of body
• Mammal cell contains 10,000 proteins
• Made up of CHONPS
• Proteins are found in meat, fish, legumes, nuts, milk,
eggs, grains and soy products.
Protein Structure

• Primary structure – the order of

amino acids making up the
polymer string
• Secondary structure – helixes
and sheets of the polymer
string folding on itself
• Tertiary structure – globs
of sheets and helixes
folding around each other
• Quaternary
Structure –
individual
proteins bound
to each other to
form a multi-
protein unit with
is own unique
function
Protein classification
 Protein classification based on
chemical composition
1. Simple proteins
• Also known as homoproteins, they are
made up of amino acids. Examples are
plasma albumin, collagen, and keratin.
2. Conjugated proteins
• Sometimes also called heteroproteins,
they contain in their structure a non-
protein portion. Three examples are
glycoproteins, chromoproteins, and
phosphoproteins.
Fig. 1 – Human Fibronectin
 Protein classification based on shape
1. Fibrous proteins
• They have primarily mechanical and
structural functions, providing support to
the cells as well as the whole organism.
2. Globular proteins
• Most of the proteins belong to this class.
They have a compact and more or less
spherical structure, more complex than Fig. 2 – Collagen
fibrous proteins.
• Unlike fibrous proteins, that have structural
and mechanical functions, they act as:
– enzymes;
– hormones;
– membrane transporters and receptors;
– transporters of triglycerides, fatty acids and
oxygen in the blood;
– immunoglobulins or antibodies;
– grain and legume storage proteins. Fig. 3 – Haemoglobin
 Protein classification based on
biological functions
• Enzymes (biochemical catalysts).
• Transport proteins
Many small molecules, organic and inorganic, are
transported in the bloodstream and extracellular fluids,
across the cell membranes, and inside the cells from
one compartment to another, by specific proteins.
Examples are:
– hemoglobin, that carries oxygen from the alveolar blood
vessels to tissue capillaries;
transferrin, which carries iron in the blood;
membrane carriers;
fatty acid binding proteins (FABP)
• Storage proteins
Examples are:
ferritin, that stores iron intracellularly in a non-toxic
form;
milk caseins, that act as a reserve of amino acids for
the milk;
egg yolk phosvitin, that contains high amounts of
phosphorus;
prolamins and glutelins, the storage proteins of
cereals.
• Mechanical support
Proteins have a pivotal role in the stabilization of many
structures. Examples are α-keratins, collagen and
elastin. The same cytoskeletal system, the scaffold of
the cell, is made of proteins.
• They generate movement
They are responsible, among others, for:
– the contraction of the muscle fibers (of which myosin
is the main component);
the propulsion of spermatozoa and microorganisms
with flagella;
the separation of chromosomes during mitosis.
– They are involved in nerve transmission.
An example is the receptor for acetylcholine at
synapses.
– They control development and differentiation.
Some proteins are involved in the regulation of gene
expression. An example is the nerve growth factor
(NGF), discovered by Rita Levi-Montalcini, that plays a
leading role in the formation of neural networks.
• Hormones
Many hormones are proteins.
They are regulatory molecules involved in the control
of many cellular functions, from metabolism to
reproduction. Examples are insulin, glucagon, and
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
Example: Hormone: Insulin
• -Frederick Sanger (1940s, 50s), discovered the amino
acid sequence of Insulin
• -Causes cells to take up more glucose, and liver and
muscle cells to create glycogen
• -Diabetes is a deficiency of insulin
• Protection against harmful agents.
The antibodies or immunoglobulins are glycoproteins
that recognize antigens expressed on the surface of
viruses, bacteria and other infectious agents.
Interferon, fibrinogen, and factors of blood coagulation
are other members of this group.
• Storage of energy.
Proteins, and in particular the amino acids that
constitute them, act as energy storage, second in size
only to the adipose tissue, that in particular conditions,
such as prolonged fasting, may become essential for
survival.
IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS

The genetic The monomers

material in any are called
cell nucleotides

Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and
Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
• Nucleic acid polymers are millions of
monomers long, wound in a double helix
• Helix unwinds during replication (copying)
• Made up of CHONP
• Types of sugar bases:
 1. DNA is the hereditary material passed
on from parents to offspring

-Structure: double-stranded

-Phosphate group

Classifications
-Sugar → deoxyribose

-Bases →

• Cytosine – Guanine
• Adenine – Thymine
Double Helix Structure of DNA
DNA Trivia
• The DNA from a single human cell has a length
of ~ 5.9 feet.
• The biggest cells are less than 0.1 inches
across
 2. RNA
• RNA-RiboNucleic Acid
• -Structure: single-stranded
• Basic units: nucleotides
– Phosphate group
– Sugar → ribose
– Bases →
• Cytosine – Guanine
• Adenine – Uracil
.
Three Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• copies DNA’s code & carries the genetic
information to the ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where
proteins are synthesized
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• along with protein, makes up the ribosomes

copyright cmassengale 72
Protein Synthesis
DNA and the Genetic Code
G- C
T- A
G- C
A- U
C- G
G- C
A- U
T- A
Translation - animation
 Name the Amino Acids
• GGG?
• UCA?
• CAU?
• GCA?
• AAA?

copyright cmassengale 77
END