Submitted by-

KOMAL OJHA
PhD student

Department of Food Science and Nutrition

CCAS, MPUAT, Udaipur
 Content
 Classification
 Functions
 Sources
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Deficiency and disorders of lipids
 Essential fatty acid
 Role of omega-3 & omega 6 fatty acids in
physiological disorders
 References
 Introduction
 Fat usually means any ester of fatty acids or mixture of such
compounds most commonly those that occur in living beings
or in food.
 Fat is used as the fatty components of foods and diet.
 Fats are best known members of a chemical group called the
lipids.
 The term lipid is applied to a group of naturally occurring
substances characterized by their insolubility in water, greasy
feel and solubility in organic solvent like ether, chloroform,
benzene or other fat solvents.
 The term lipid was first used by the German biochemist Bloor
in 1943.
 Composition
• Lipids like carbohydrates are composed of the 3
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The lower amount of O in relation to the other two
elements results in lipids being a more concentrated
source of energy than carbohydrate.
• Eg,-
1gm of C - 4 kcal
1gm of P - 4 kcal
1gm of F - 9 kcal
 Chemical Composition
• Triglycerides- Triglycerides or Triacylglycerols
are the main form of fat both in foodstuffs and
in the storage depots of most animals. The are
esters of glyerols and fatty acids (1:3).
•Fatty acids

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chain. The are the
simplest form of lipids. Over 40 different fatty acids are found in nature.
Fatty acids are classified based on length of carbon chains into 3 groups
short chain with less than 8 carbons; medium chain with 10-14 carbons and
long chain with 16-24 carbons.
 Classification
• Lipids are classified as simple, compound and derived lipids
based on composition.
1. Simple lipids- esters of fatty acids with certain alcohols.
They are usually further classified acc. to the nature of the
alcohols.
eg. Fats and oils, waxes
2. Compounds or complex lipids- ester of fatty acids which on
hydrolysis yield other substances in addition to fatty acids
and an alcohol.
3. Derived lipids – These are substances liberated during
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which still retain
the properties of lipids.
 Compound lipids
•Phospholipids: Phospholipids are a major component of the lipid bilayer of the cell
membrane and are found in many parts of the body.

•Sphingolipids: Sphingolipids are mostly found in the cell membrane of neural tissue.

•Glycolipids: The main role of glycolipids is to maintain lipid bilayer stability and
facilitate cell recognition.

•Glycerophospholipids: Neural tissue (including the brain) contains high amounts of

glycerophospholipids.

•Cholesterols: Cholesterols are the main precursors for different hormones in our
body such as progesterone and testosterone. The main function of cholesterol is
controlling the cell membrane fluidity.

• Steroid – see also steroidogenesis: Steroids are one of the important cell signalling
molecules.
• Eicosanoids: Eicosanoids are made from fatty acids in the
body and they are used for cell signaling.

• Ketone bodies: Ketone bodies are made from fatty acids in

the liver. Their function is to produce energy during periods of
starvation or low food intake.

• Lipoproteins: These compounds found in mammalian plasma

are composed of lipid material bound to proteins. The lipids
mostly consists of cholesterol esters and phospholipids
containing principally stearic, palmitic and oleic acids
although palmitoleic, linoleic and arachidonic acids have been
identified.
 Functions

Absorption of
Insulator
fat soluble Protector
vitamins

Regulator of
body Fat Source of
function energy

Essential
constituent of Energy
the membrane reserve
of every cell
1. Essential constituent of the membrane of every cell-
fat is present not only in the outer membranes of cells but also in the
internal membranes of the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and the other
membranes bound organelles.

2. Energy reserve:
fat is the primary form in which energy is stored in the body. 1 pound
(454g) of stored fat represent 3500kcal of stored energy. Some fat can be
stored within most cells but the body also contain large numbers of
specialised cells, adipocytes, within adipose tissue.

3. Absorption of fat soluble vitamins:

fat soluble vitamins like A,D,E,K are absorbed in the body through fat.

4. Regulator of body functions: As an essential components of all cell

membranes, fat indirectly help to regulate both the flow of material into and
out of the cell and change in cell size and shape such as those involved in
growth.
I. Specific long chain omega-6 and omega-3 unsaturated fatty
acid also act as the precursors of a range of hormone like
substances, the eicosanoids, involved in the regulation of a wide
variety of the processes in the body.
II. Eicosanoids include the classes of important physiological
regulators known as prostaglandins, thromboxanes,
leukotrienes.
III. Eicosanoids perform many functions, including the regulation
of blood pressure, the control of important aspects of the
reproductive cycle, the stimulation of pain and fever and the
induction of blood clotting.
5. Insulators:
Deposits of fat beneath the skin known as the subcutaneous fat,
serves as an insulating material for the body and is effective at
preventing heat loss.
 Sources
• Nuts and oil seeds are excellent sources of fat. The visible fats
are butter, ghee and oil.
• Invisible fats are present in cereals, pulses, oil seed, milk and
egg.
• Fruits and vegetables are poor source of fat.
Table 01: fat content of foods

Name of food stuff Fat g/100g

Ghee & oil 100
Butter 81
Coconut dry 62
Cashew nut 40
Groundnut 25
Cheese 23
Egg (Hen) 13
Digestion and
Absorption
Lipid digestion begins in the mouth, continues in the stomach, and
ends in the small intestine.
1. Mouth
• The digestion of fat is initiated by the lingual lipase enzymes. This
enzymes mixes with chewed food and hydrolyses fatty acid from
triglycerides to form diglycerides as the food travels down the
oesophagus to the stomach.
•It has an optimum pH of 2.5-5
• Lingual lipase hydrolyses short chain and medium chain
triglycerides more readily than it does long chain triglycerides.
2. Stomach (gastric lipase)
• Gastric lipase is acid stable with an optimum pH around 5.4
• It is secreted by chief cells, the secretion is stimulated by gastrin.
• The food mass passes into small intestine, where the presence of fat
stimulates the release of the hormones cholecystokinin and secritin.
•
• These hormones, in turn, stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
juice from pancreas and release bile which is synthesised in liver.
• Upto 30% digestion of triglycerides occurs in stomach.

3. Small intestine ( Emulsification of lipids)

• Emulsification is a prerequisite for digestion of lipids
• The lipids are dispersed into smaller droplets; surface tension is
reduced and surface area of droplets is increased.

 This process is favoured by:

1. Bile salts ( detergent action)
2. Peristalsis (mechanical mixing)
3. Phospholipids ( surfactants)
1. Bile salts:
• Bile salts are the biological detergents synthesized from cholesterol in the liver.

• They are secreted with bile into the duodenum

• Bile salts are the most effective biological emulsifying agents

• They interact with lipid particles and the aqueous duodenal contents and convert them into
smaller particles (emulsified droplets)

• The bile salts lower surface tension

• The emulsification increases the surface area of the particles for enhanced activity of
enzymes
2 . Phospholipids ( surfactants)

• The initial digestive products of lipids (catalysed by lipase).

Free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols promote emulsification

• These compounds along with phospholipids are known as

surfactants

• Surfactants get absorbed the water-lipids interface and

increase the interfacial area of lipid droplets

• Mechanical mixing due to peristalsis also help in the

emulsification
 Absorption

• Glycerol, short and medium chain fatty acids(chain length less

than 14 carbon) are directly absorbed from the intestinal
lumen in to the portal vein and taken to live for further
utilization.

• Long chain fatty acids, free cholesterol and β-acyl glycerol

together with bile salts form mixed micelles
 Micelles
 Micelles are disk shaped cluster of
amphipathic lipids that coalesce with
their hydrophobic groups on the inside
and their hydrophilic groups on the
outside of clusters.
 Mixed micelles are soluble in the
aqueous environment of the intestinal
lumen.
 The micelles approach the brush
membrane of the enterocytes.
• Micelles constantly break down and re-form

• It is monoglycerides and fatty acids that are free in

solution that are absorbed, not the micelles.

• Because of their nonpolar nature, monoglycerides and

fatty acids can just diffuse across the plasma
membrane of the enterocytes.

• Some absorption may be facilitated by specific

transport proteins.
 Transport
• Due to the hydrophobic nature of membrane lipids, triglycerides
and cholesterols, they require special transport proteins known as
lipoproteins.
• The amphipathic structure of lipoproteins allows the triglycerols
and cholesterol to be transported through the blood.
• Chylomicrons are one sub-group of lipoproteins which carry the
digested lipids from small intestine to the rest of the body.
• The varying densities between the types of lipoproteins are
characteristic to what type of fats they transport. For example,
very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) carry the synthesized
triglycerides by our body and low-density lipoproteins (LDL)
transport cholesterol to our peripheral tissues.
• A number of these lipoproteins are synthesized in the liver, but not
all of them originate from this organ.
 Metabolism
• Short chain fatty acids enter the circulation directly but most of the
fatty acids are reesterified with glycerol in the intestines to form
triglycerides that enter into the blood as lipoprotein particles called
chylomicrons.
• Lipoprotein lipase acts on these chylomicrons to form fatty acids.
These may be stored as fat in adipose tissue, used for energy in any
tissue with mitochondria using oxygen and reesterified to
triglycerides in the liver and exported as lipoproteins called VLDL
(very low density lipoproteins).
• VLDL has a similar outcome as chylomicrons and eventually is
converted to LDL (low density lipoproteins). Insulin simulates
lipoprotein lipase.
• During starvation for long periods of time the fatty acids can also be
converted to ketone bodies in the liver. These ketone bodies can be
used as an energy source by most cells that have mitochondria.
 Degradation

• Fatty acids are broken down by Beta oxidation. This

occurs in the mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to
generate acetyl-CoA. The process is the reverse of
fatty acid synthesis: two-carbon fragments are
removed from the carboxyl end of the acid. This
occurs after dehydrogenation, hydration, and
oxidation to form a beta-keto acid.

• The acetyl-CoA then converts to ATP, CO2, and H2O

using the citric acid cycle and releases energy of 106
ATP.
 Deficiency and Disorders of lipids

1. Skin Problem

• When essential fatty acids are

missing from our diet it can cause
skin problems.
• An essential fatty acid deficiency
increase the loss of water from your
skin, which results in dry, scaly rash.
• This type of deficiency can also
make it harder for your wound to
heal.
 Phrynoderma
• Hair emerge from the roots through the same follicles. In
follicular hyperkeratosis, the follicles become blocked with
plugs of keratin derived from their epithelial lining which has
undergoes squamous metaplasia.
• Because of the roughness in appearance, the condition has been
called Toad skin or Phrynoderma.
• Phrynoderma can be cured by EFA along with vitamins A and
B- complex group.
 2. Cognitive Problem
• Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are
essential for brain.

• Not having enough DHA may

result in learning deficits and
increase the risk for certain types
of dementia.
 3. Vision Problems
• EPA and DHA are also
important components of
the retina.

• DHA helps from the

pigment rhodopsin, which
need for your brain to turn
the light hitting your retina
into the image you see.
 Effects of excess fat in Human

1. OBESITY

• Taking in more calories than you can expend in an

average day makes you gain weight, placing strain
on your cardiovascular, respiratory and other body
systems.
 2. Constipation
• Diets that are high in fat can
affect your digestive organ.

• If a diet is high in saturated fat to

the detriment of your fiber
intake, you may become
constipated frequently.
 3. ATHEROSCLEROSIS
• Consuming a lot of
saturated fat affects your
blood cholesterol and
arterial health.

• Atherosclerosis thickening
or hardening of the arteries.
It is caused by a buildup of
plaque in the inner lining of
an artery.
 Fatty acids

• Fatty acids are carboxylic acids

with hydrocarbon side chain.
The are the simplest form of
lipids. Over 40 different fatty
acids are found in nature.
• Fatty acids are classified based
on length of carbon chains into
3 groups short chain with less
than 8 carbons; medium chain
with 10-14 carbons and long
chain with 16-24 carbons.

fig.- shows the natural fatty acids and their

occurrence
 Saturated fatty acid

• Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in the chain or contain single
chain.
• Their general formula is CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n specifies the number of
methylene groups between the methyl and carboxyl carbons.
• They have higher melting points
• They are solid at room temperature
• Eg. lauric, myristic, palmitic acid etc.
 Table : the important natural fatty acids and their occurrence
Fatty acids C atoms and double bonds Occurrence
( saturated FA)
1. Short chain
• butyric acid C4 : 0 Butter
•Caproic acid C5 : 0 Butter, coconut oil
•Caprylic acid C6 : 0 Butter, coconut oil

2. Medium chain
• capric acid C10 : 0 Butter, coconut oil
• lauric acid C12: 0 Butter, coconut oil
•Myristic acid C14 : 0 Butter, coconut oil

3. Long chain
• Palmitic acid C16 : 0 Most veg. and animal fats
• Stearic acid C18: 0 ”, cocoa butter, fully
hydrogenated vegetable oil
• Arachidic acid C20 : 0 Butter, lard, peanuts oil
 Unsaturated fatty acid

• These fatty acid contain one or more double bonds along the
length of the hydrocarbon chain.
• They are liquid at room temperature
• Have low melting point
• Eg., linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitoleic acid
 Table : the important natural fatty acids and their occurrence

Fatty acids C atoms and double Occurrence

( unsaturated FA) bonds
1. Monounsaturated FA
• Palmitoleic acid C16 : 1 Olive oil, fish, beef fat
• oleic acid C18 : 1 Olive oil, nuts, seeds,
avocado
2. Polyunsaturated FA
• Linoleic acid C18 : 2(n-6) Veg. seed oils (corn,
soyabean, cotton seed)

• α- linolenic acid C18 : 3(n-3) ” walnuts, flax seeds

•Arachidonic acid C20 : 4(n-6) Fats & animal tissues ( liver,

lard, meat, poultry, fish,
eggs)

• Eicosapentaenoic acid C20 : 5(n-3) Fish oils, shell fish, algae

• Docosahexaenoic acid C22 : 6(n-3)
Fish oils, shell fish, algae
 Role of Omega-3 & Omega-6 fatty acids

Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA),
meaning they contain more than one cis double bond. In all omega-6 (ω6
or n-6) fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the sixth and
seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid. Likewise, all
omega-3 fatty acids (ω3 or n-3) have at least one double bond between the
third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty
acid.
1. Prevent cancer-
ω-3 fatty acids have been found to prevent cancer of breast and colon in
human by inhibiting tumour cell growth.
2. Anti-inflammatory effect:
ω-3 fatty acids foods increase the cell membrane content of both EPA and
DHA which increase the production of ant-inflammatory group icosanoid.
3. Formation of prostaglandins:
It is responsible for the formation of prostaglandins found in every single
cell of the body. Prostaglandins regulate cell activities including
transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

4. Defense mechanism:
It creates healthy cell walls and supports the defense mechanism of the
body as well as detoxification activity. It makes cell membrane more
permeable. The permeability of the membrane help in protecting the cell
against invading bacteria, toxins, infections and viruses. The cell
membrane also facilitates the flow of nutrients and waste materials in and
out of the cell.

5. Role in extracellular matrix:

It regulates the activity of the extra cellular matrix, which do not only
supports the cells in the various organs but also influences multiplication,
development, movement, shape and biochemical functions of the cells.
 Omega-6 fatty acids

Omega-6 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids that perform

essential functions in the human body. The most abundant
member of this family in food and in the body is linoleic acid.
Other members include gamma-linolenic acid and arachidonic
acid. Linoleic acid is considered an essential fatty acid since it
cannot be synthesized by the body. However, other members of
the omega-6 family can be made from linoleic acid.
Omega-6 fatty acids have numerous important roles in the body.
• They contribute to the structure and function of cell
membranes and play a part in the regulation of gene activity
inside the cell.

• Arachidonic acid is especially abundant in the brain, and may

be important for normal brain development of the fetus and
infant.

• Both arachidonic acid and gamma-linolenic acid can be

converted to prostaglandins and related substances that affect
inflammation, blood clotting, smooth muscle tone, and many
other body activities.
THANK YOU
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