NUTRIENTS

DR. MARY KAMAU

CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS
Classification of Macronutrients vs Micronutrients

• Macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils),

• Micronutrients – Vitamins and Minerals

Remember the 6 essential nutrients?

MACRONUTRIENTS

Carbohydrates
• They are the primary source of energy for our body
• They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Functions
• Providing energy - each gram provides 4kcal
• They are stored in the liver in form of glycogen
• They spare proteins for their primary functions of building and repairing
tissues, and prevents ketosis
• Normal fat metabolism and provides dietary fiber in the grain
• Using glucose to make other compounds
Carbohydrates
Food sources
• Cereal grains and their products i.e. rice, wheat Vegetables i.e. potatoes, peas,
corn
• Sugars i.e. table sugar, honey, sugar rich food

Classification
- Based on the number of single sugar molecules they contain.
• i. Simple carbohydrates - monosaccharides and disaccharides
• ii. Complex carbohydrates - polysaccharides
Simple Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides-They are simplest form, sweet and require no digestion and can
be absorbed directly into blood stream. They are: Glucose, fructose, galactose
Dissacharides-
They are pairs of monosaccharide's. They are sweet and must be changed into
simple sugars by hydrolysis before being absorbed. They include; sucrose (G+F),
maltose (G+G) and lactose (G+Ga)

Complex Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides:

• They are compounds of many monosaccharide's
• Include - starch, glycogen and fiber
• Starch is found in seeds, roots, stems or tubers
• Glycogen - storage form of glucose in animals/humans, in the liver/muscles
(No dietary source, just like maltose)
• Fiber (roughage) - it is indigestible because it cannot be broken down by
digestive enzymes. They are soluble e.g. apples or insoluble e.g. wheat bran
 Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharide's are directly absorbed into blood stream from intestines
• Disaccharides must be converted into simple sugars by action of enzymes
maltose sucrose, lactose before being absorbed into blood streams
• Digestion of starch starts in the mouth where salivary amylase acts on it,
then in stomach where it is mixed with gastric juice.
• Final step they are changed into simple sugars by enzyme action of
pancreatic amylase and subsequently absorbed into blood
• Dietary fiber is not digested by the small intestine, it passes to the colon
unchanged
 Metabolism and Elimination
• All carbohydrates are changed into simple sugars before
metabolism takes place.
• Glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in liver and
muscles.
• Excess can also be converted to fat and stored as adipose tissue
• Dietary requirement - 50-100g daily
 LIPIDS
• Are a group of water- insoluble (hydrophobic), energy yielding organic
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and less of oxygen atoms.
• They are however soluble in organic solvents like acetone.
• Lipids are greasy in texture and non-volatile.
• Each gram contains 9kcal.
• The lower portion of O2 leads to a greater oxygen combining power which
makes them greater sources of heat and energy production than CHO.
Functions of Lipids
• Provide energy 1 gram of fat provides 9 Kilocalorie of fat. Stored fat
in adipose cells represents the body’s largest and most efficient
energy reserve
• Fat deposits (adipose tissue) insulate and cushion internal organs to
protect them from mechanical injury
• Fat under the skin helps to regulate temperature by serving as a
layer of insulation against the cold
• Dietary fats also facilitate the absorption of the fat soluble vitamins
A,D,E and K when consumed at the same meal
Functions of Lipids Cont
• Phospholipids and cholesterol are vital components of cell
membranes
• Cholesterol is a precursor of vitamin D, steroid hormones and
bile acids
• As a component of phospholipids essential fats help to maintain
cell membrane integrity; they also regulate cholesterol
metabolism and are precursors of eicosanoids and blood clotting
• Provide feeling of satiety after meals partly due to flavor they give
and slow rate of digestion
Food sources
• Animal foods- meat(fatty meat sausage, bacon)milk, cream,
butter, cheese, egg yolk
• Plant foods- cooking oil made from sunflower, corn, peanuts,
soybeans and olives
• Margarine, nuts, ovacado, coconuts, and cocoabuttter
 Classification
• Fats and oils are made up of two types of molecules:
a. Fatty acids and
b. Glycerol
• Fats and oils are commonly occurring as triglycerides
(which are a combination of one molecule of glycerol with
three fatty acids), and also as phospholipids (lecithin);
lipoproteins and sterols (cholesterol).
Forms of Body Lipids
• Include; phospholipids, cholesterol and lipoprotein
Phospholipids:
• Compound lipids, similar to triglycerides (a glycerol molecule and two fatty
acids).
• They are both fat soluble and water soluble, this enables them to act as
emulsifiers.
• It is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. It is a natural emulsifier
• It is a lipid bilayer that forms basic component of plasma membrane.
• As a component of all cell membranes, they provide structure and also help
to transport fat soluble substance across cell membranes.
• Are precursors of prostaglandins
 Cholesterol:
• A sterol, a waxy substance whose carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules
are arranged in a ring.
• It’s not a true fat; It is a fat like substance that exists in animal food and body
cells.
• Cholesterol occurs in the tissues of all animals, found in all cell membranes
and myelin; brain and nerve cells.
• Essential for synthesis of bile, sex hormones, cortisone and vit D, component
of cell membrane.
• Sources; egg yolk, fatty meat, cream, organ meat. Are rich in meats and egg
yolk.
• When taken in excess can lead to atherosclerosis
Certain conditions are thought to have an effect on the body’s level of
cholesterol
• They include;
• Heredity
• Emotional stress
• Exercise and losing weight increase the HDL thus decrease the cholesterol
levels
• Unsaturated fats tend to lower blood cholesterol
• Saturated fats and dietary cholesterol raise the blood cholesterol level
Lipoproteins:
• They are composed of protein, triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol.
• Lipoprotein is the form in which fats are transported in the blood stream.
Fats combine with protein molecule so as to be transported in blood which
is mainly water.
• High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) is called "good" because they move
cholesterol away from artery walls and back to the liver.
• Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) is called "bad" because they keep
cholesterol circulating in the blood, causing the arteries to become clogged
with deposits.
Classifications of Fatty Acids
• Depends on the structure of the long carbon-carbon
chains in the fatty acids (by their degree of saturation
with hydrogen atoms).
• Can be classified as either:
i) Saturated or
ii) Unsaturated
i. Unsaturated Fats
• Some hydrogen atoms are missing and the carbon atoms are joined together by
double bonds. They can be either:
•Polyunsaturated (many double bonds) or
•Monounsaturated fats (one or few double bonds)
• Generally liquid at room temperature.
• Occur mainly in vegetable sources such sunflower, corn oil, olive oil, peanut oil;
cashews, almonds, peanuts, and most other nuts; avocados, soy bean, cotton
seed, omega 3 found in fish oils with exception of coconut oil.
• They are accredited for lowering low density lipoproteins (LDL) and increasing the
high density lipoproteins (HDL) - this reduces the cholesterol circulating in the
blood
• However, omega 3 fats may protect the heart by mechanisms other than lowering
cholesterol.
ii. Saturated Fats

• Each of its carbon atoms carries all hydrogen atoms possible.

• They contain no double bonds in their fatty acid chains
• They are solid at room temperature, such as butter and animal fats and
considered as unhealthy fat.
• In higher amounts, they raise LDL which gives high cholesterol levels, causing
clogging of the blood vessels, leading to coronary heart disease and
increases the risk of infarctation of the heart and other organs
• The sources include whole milk, butter, cheese, and ice cream; red meat;
chocolate; coconuts, coconut milk, and coconut oil..
Trans-fats (hydrogenated)- (ugly fat)
• Are manufactured to make them solid at room temperature or to
make them less -susceptible to rancidity so that products stay
fresher longer.
• They are also associated with a raise in LDL.
• Most margarines; vegetable shortening; partially hydrogenated
vegetable oil; deep-fried chips; many fast foods; most
commercial baked goods
• They produce unhealthy fatty acids
Digestion and Absorption
• Lipases enzymes secreted under the tongue, in the stomach, and from
the pancreas hydrolyze the fat (remove fats from glycerol).
• Most of the hydrolysis occurs in the stomach.
• Chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine where they are
emulsified by bile and enzyme pancreatic amylase reduce them to
fatty acids and glycerol which body absorbs through villi.
• Lipoproteins are special carriers that carry fat to the body cells by way
of blood.
• They are classified as; VLDL(composed of 55-65%)triglycerides,
LDL(bad cholesterol), HDL (good cholesterol)
Metabolism and Elimination
• Liver hydrolyzes triglycerides and forms new ones
• Metabolism occurs in the cells where fatty acids are broken
down to CO2 and H2O and releasing energy, portion that is
not needed immediately is stored as adipose tissue.
• CO2 and H2O are waste products that are removed from the
body by circulatory, respiratory, and excretory system
• Daily Intake 44-77g/day (Check)
 Proteins
• Proteins are classes of energy yielding nutrients composed of individual building
blocks called amino acids.
• They are basic material for every body cell and building blocks of life
• They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Classification
• Depends on the no of amino acids.
• There are 20 amino acids, 9 of which are essential and 11 non-essential
Essential amino acids
• They are necessary for normal growth and development and must be provided
in the diet. Balance over a whole day is important.
• They are nine i.e. histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, trytophan and valine
 Non-essential amino acids-they
• Are made by the body from essential amino acids or from normal
breakdown of protein.
• The body cells can synthesize them if nitrogen and other precursors are
available through transamination.
• Include: alanine, arginine, asparagines, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic
acid, glutamine, glycine, praline, serine and tyrosine.
• Incomplete (low quality) proteins are those that lack one or more essential
amino acids
• Complementary
• Conditional proteins usually not essential but required during illness or in
times of tress
 Types and Sources of Proteins
• Found in both plants and animals
• Animal proteins provide the highest quality
• The amino acid profile determines the quality of food protein.
• We therefore have:
• Complete (high biological proteins) - provide all the 9 essential amino acids
• Sources: All animal proteins except the gelatine i.e. meat, fish, milk, poultry, eggs, and
soy protein
• Incomplete proteins - provide all the essential amino acids but have one or
more limiting amino acids that render them incapable of meeting the body’s
need for normal protein synthesis.
• Sources: All the plant proteins except soy i.e. corn, legumes, peanut, sunflower, beans
 Functions of Proteins
• Building and repairing body tissues - as cells are broken down during metabolism
some amino acids released into blood are recycled to build new cells & repair
tissues
• Regulating of body functions - they are important components of hormones and
enzymes that are responsible for regulation of metabolism & digestion.
• Other body secretions and fluids; hormones, neurotransmitters, antibodies,
breast milk, mucus, sperm and histamine.
• Amino acids form numerous body compounds such as opsin, thrombin
• They help maintain body fluid and electrolyte balance, thus prevent edema
• Acid-base balance
• Responsible for development of antibodies
• Transport molecules e.g. lipoproteins transport cholesterol, Hb-O2,
• Provide energy when supply of CHO and fats in the diet is insufficient
Digestion and Absorption
• Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth.
• Chemical digestion begins in the stomach. They are broken down into
polypeptides by the action of acid and the enzyme pepsin.
• In small intestines polypeptides are reduced into amino acids by action of
pancreatic enzyme trypsin, carboxypeptidase
• Amino acids are then absorbed by villi and carried by blood to all body tissues
• For a short period in the newborn, absorption of ingested intact protein
occurs by a process, called pinocytosis
• Cow's milk given to infants can cause a hypersensitivity reaction, or milk
allergy as the milk protein absorbed acts as a foreign protein
• Some individuals lack gluten, a digestive enzyme that normally breaks down a
wheat protein, a defect known as celiac disease or sprue. The undigested
gluten may cause severe and chronic allergic response of the small intestine.
Metabolism and Elimination
• Amino acids are broken down in the process known as
deamination where nitrogen containing amino group is removed.
• It results in ammonia formation.
• The liver picks up the ammonia which is converted into urea and
excreted as urine.
• Remaining part are used as energy or are converted to CHO, fat
and are stored as glycogen or adipose tissue
Dietary Requirement
• It is determined by age, size, sex, physical and emotional status
• A growing child, pregnant woman or breastfeeding woman needs more
protein than a normal adult
• Extra proteins are needed after surgery, severe burns or during infections
in order to replace the lost tissue and manufacture antibbodies. Emotional
trauma requires more protein
• Protein excess can lead to heart disease, high ca excretion, more demand
on the kidney
• Daily requirement for adult - 0.8/kg
 WATER
• An essential nutrient and the main constituent in body
• Structure of water 2 hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom
allows it to provide a base for biochemical reactions in the body and
to easily move through the various compartments of cells and body
systems
• Humans can survive only a few days without water – upto 3 days
• Water makes up 45 to 75% of a person weight (50-60%)
• Body water is divided into 2 compartments
• Intracellular - water within cells and accounts about 65% of total body
fluid
• Extracellular - water outside the cells and accounts for 35% of total
body fluid. It is a major component of blood plasma
 Cont WATER
• Na, CL and K are solutes that maintain balance between ICF and ECF.
Potassium is the principal electrolyte in ICF and Na in ECF.
• When electrolytes in ECF are increased, ICF moves to ECF in attempt to
equalize the concentration.
• This movement reduces amount of H2O in the cells thus dehydration.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is produced that causes reabsorption of water
• When Na in ECF is reduced water moves from ECF into the cells causing
cellular edema.
• This causes adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone which triggers kidney to
increase amount of Na reabsorption
Functions of Water
• Component of all body tissues
• Provides shape and structure to cells; muscle cells have a higher concentration of water than
fat.
• Regulates body temperature; water absorbs heat slowly, evaporation from our skin cools the
skin
• Aids in digestion and absorption of nutrients; approximately 7-9L of water is secreted in the
GIT daily to aid in digestion and absorption. All water in GIT is absorbed in the ileum and
colon
• Transport of nutrients and oxygen to cells;
• Serves as a solvent for vitamins, minerals, glucose and amino acids
• Participates in metabolic reactions; e.g. synthesis of hormones and enzymes
• Eliminates waste products; it helps to excrete body wastes through urine, feces and
expirations
• Is a major component of mucus and other lubricating fluids; it thus reduces friction in joints
where bones, ligaments and tendons come into contact with each other and it cushions
contacts between internal organs that slide over each other.
Water Sources
• Drinking water - the best source
• Beverages - second source
• Water in foods 600-700mls e.g. soups, milk etc
• Some fruits and vegetables contain a substantial amount of water
• Grain products provide very little
• Product of metabolism of CHO, proteins and fats - Body produces
metabolic water about 250ml to 350 mls
Water Requirements
• Depends on:
• Body size
• Body composition
• Activity level
• Temperature and humidity of the environment
• Fluid intake driven by the combination of thirst
• Consumption of food and beverages at meals allows maintenance
of hydration status and total body water at normal levels
• For optimal health normal adult should drink 8 glasses of water a
day
Water Requirements

• Adequate intake is 3.7 liters per day for men

• 2.7 litters per day for women
• Higher intakes in pregnancy 3 liters
• Lactation 3.8 liters
• Activity and sweats increases water needs, athletes and very
active people need much more water if they work and train in
warm and humid climates
 MICRONUTRIENTS
VITAMINS
• They are organic compounds that are essential in small
amounts for body processes.
• They regulate body function and promote growth.
• They do not provide energy but enable the body to use
energy provided by fats, CHO, and proteins
• Deficiencies can result due to:
• Avitaminosis (serious lack of particular vitamin)
• Hypervitaminosis (excess of one or more vitamins)
Classification
Into 2:
• Fat soluble and
• Water soluble

Fat soluble
• These are vitamins A< D< E<K.
• They are not easily lost by cooking and are transported through blood by
lipoproteins.
• Mega doses should be avoided because they can reach toxic levels
 Vitamin A
• There are two forms
• Preformed (retinol) - active form
• Carotenoids - inactive form found in plants
Functions of vitamin A
• Antioxidant that protect the cells from destruction
• Essential for maintaining of healthy eyes and skin
• Aids in prevention of infections
• Essential for normal growth and reproduction
Sources – dark green leafy and yellow vegetables, fruits, spinach, pumpkin, mangoes
Retinol - liver, butter, cream, egg yolk
Deficiencies - night blindness, dry rough skin and increased susceptibility to
infections.
Complete lack of it leads to xerophthalmia
Vitamin D
• Considered a prohormone because it is converted into hormone in human
body.
• Promotes calcium and phosphorus absorption in the body
• Prevents tetany, promote bone and tooth mineralization.
Sources - sunlight, milk, fish, egg and fortified margarine
Deficiency - poor bone and tooth formation, rickets, osteomalacia,
osteoporosis
Hypervitaminosis can cause calcium and phosphorus deposits in soft
tissue, kidney, fragile bones and heart damage
Vitamin E
• Consists of two groups tochopherols and tocotrienosis
Functions
• Serves as an antioxidant
• Helpful in prevention of hemolytic anemia among premature infants
• Enhance immune system
• Used in commercial food products to retard spoilage
Sources - vegetable oil made from corn, soya; nut; green leafy vegetables
Deficiency - LBW, neurological defects in children
Vitamin K
• It is absorbed in small intestine and slightly from the colon.
• Absorption requires a normal flow of bile from the liver
Functions
• Essential for formation of prothrombin which permits proper clotting of
blood
• Antidote for an overdose of an anticoagulant
• Treatment of hemorrhage cases and patient who suffer from faulty fat
absorption
Sources - green leafy vegetables, dairy products, egg, fruits and cereals
Deficiency - defective blood coagulation
Water Soluble Vitamins (B and C)
• They dissolve in water easily and are destroyed by air, light and cooking.
Not stored in the body to an extend of fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin B complex
• Composed of
Thiamine ( Vitamin B1)-co-enzyme
• Essential for metabolism of CHO and some amino acids, essential for nerve
and muscle action
• Deficiency - Beriberi characterized by loss of appetite, fatigue, nervous
irritability and constipation
• Risk factors - alcoholics, renal pts and NGT feeding
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
• Essential for CHO, protein and fat metabolism
• Necessary for tissue maintenance and healthy eyes
• Sources - milk,meat,poultry, fish and green leafy vegetables
• Deficiency - cheloisis characterized by sores of lips and cracks at corners
of mouth, glossitis, dermatitis and eye strain

Niacin (Vitamin B3)

• Coenzyme in energy metabolism
• Essential for prevention of pellagra
• Sources- meat, poultry, fish, milk and legumes
• Deficiency - pellagra, weakness and irritability
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
• Essential for oxidation of fats and carbohydrates
• Sources: Mostly rice and bran

Vitamin B6 (Pyrodoxine, pyrodoxical)

• Essential for protein metabolism and aids in release of glucose from
glycogen
• Helps in formation of other substances from amino acids i.e
dopamine $serotonin
• Sources- poultry, fish, bananas, spinach, wholegrain
• Deficiency - irritability, dermatosis,epileptic form of convulsions
Biotin (Vitamin B7)
• Participates as co-enzyme in synthesis of fatty acids and amino acids
• Deficiency- increased serum cholesterol, anorexia pallor, depression

Folate (Vitamin B9)

• Essential for DNA synthesis, formation of hemoglobin and protein
metabolism
• Sources - cereals fortified with folate, green leafy vegetables, legumes
and fruits
• Deficiency - neural tube defects i.e
ancephally,spinabifida,megaloblastic anemia. Mental confusion
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
• Can be stored in human body for 3-5 days
Functions
• Involved in folate formation
• Maintenance of myelin sheath and healthy red blood cells
Sources - organ meat, lean meat, sea food, eggs and dairy
products
Deficiency- pernicious anaemia,mega;oblastic anemia,
neurological problems
Vitamin C
Functions
• Prevents scurvy
• Has an antioxidant property and protect food from oxidation
• Formation of collagen a protein substance that holds body cells together
making it necessary for wound healing
• Helps in absorption of non heme iron (iron enhancer)
• Involved in formation of nor epinephrine, some amino acids, folate,
leukocytes and immune system
• Natural antihistamine
Sources- citrus fruits, straw berries, tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage
Deficiency------ scurvy characterized by soft bleeding gums and loose
teeth,poor wound healing, tendency to bruise easily, sore joints and
muscles
 Minerals
• They are inorganic elements necessary for the body to build tissue and
their role as catalyst in biochemical reaction.
• They do not provide energy but contribute to production of energy within
the body.
• They are found in H2o, natural foods and other nutrients

Functions
• Regulate body fluids and maintain osmotic pressure
• Supply necessary electrolytes for the action of muscles and nerves
• Present in all enzymatic system
• They have specific action e.g. iron for blood formation
Classification
• They are classified as
a. Macro minerals (major) - daily requirement is 100mg or greater
b. Micro minerals (Trace minerals)- less than 100mg required daily

Minerals contain electrolytes which must be balanced for the body to

maintain body fluid balance
 Major Minerals
Calcium
• More abundant in the body than any other mineral; 99% found in bones and 1% in blood

Functions
• Gives bones and teeth strength and hardness
• Help in formation of bones and teeth
• Helps in contraction of muscles, transmission of nerve impulses, blood clotting, heart
function and cell metabolism
Sources - milk, milk products, green leafy vegetables, fish with bones, small edible bones
Deficiency- rickets, osteomalacia, muscle cramps, tingling sensations, tetany, convulsions
Excess -relaxed skeletal muscle and cardiac irregularities
Phosphorus
• Stored in bones
Functions
• Formation of strong bones and teeth
• Metabolism of CHO, fats and proteins
• Constituent of all body cells
• Regulation of acid base balance in blood
• Activation of B vitamins
• Promotion of nerve and muscle activity
Sources- milk, milk products, beef, pork, poultry, dried peas and beans
Deficiency- demineralization, hemolytic anemia, pathological fracture, defective
white blood cell function
Potassium
• Electrolyte mainly found in intracellular fluid
Functions
• Essential for fluid balance within the cell and osmosis
• Transporting of nerve impulses and muscle contractions
Sources- fruits i.e melon, orange bananas; Vegetables i.e mushroom,
potato, carrots and beans
Deficiency- hypokalemia caused by diarrhea, vomiting, diabetic
acidosis,
Excess- hyperkalemia caused by dehydration, renal failure, cardiac
failure
Sodium
• Electrolyte found in extracellular fluid

Function
• Control fluid balance in the body
• Maintenance of acid base balance in the body
• Transmission of nerve impulses essential for normal muscle function
Sources- table salt, fruits, vegetables, drinking water
Deficiency- dehydration, upset in acid base, diabetic acidosis
Excess- edema, hypertension
Chloride
• Found in extracellular fluid
Functions
• Essential for maintenance of fluid, electrolyte and acid base
balance in the body
• Component of gastric juice
• Found in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), muscle and nerve tissue
• Necessary during immune response
• Sources- table salt
• Deficiency - alkalosis
Magnesium
Functions
• Vital to both soft and hard body tissues
• Essential for metabolism
• Regulates nerve and muscle functioning
• Helps in utilization of ca, potassium, and protein
• Supports the function of B group vitamins
• Sources- whole grain, nuts, legumes and fruits
• Deficiency- neuromuscular irritability,

• Read and write notes on sulfur

Micro minerals (Trace minerals)
Fluoride
• Increases one resistance to dental carries
• Helps in strengthening of the bones
• Sources- fluoridated H2o, fish and tea
• Deficiency- tooth decay, tooth discoloration

Iron
• Functions
• Deliver O2 to body tissues vitamins, antibodies
• Utilized by enzymes that take part in tissue respiration. making
• Help in formation hemoglobin
• Increases resistance to infection
• Takes part in synthesis of hormones and neurotransmitters
Iron
• Sources- , fish, dark green leafy vegetables, whole grain, dried beans
• NB: Differentiate the haeme and non-haeme sources
• Deficiency- anemia, lowered resistance to infection, fatigue, weakness and
lethargy

Iodine
• Component of thyroid hormone
• Necessary for functioning of thyroid gland which determines rate of metabolism
• Helps in oxidation process of the body
• Sources- iodized salt, sea food, water, food additives
• Deficiency- Goitre, hypothyroidism, cretinism in children
 Zinc
• Actor for more than 300 enzymes
Functions
• Essential for growth, wound healing, immune response, glucose
tolerance, taste acuity
• Essential for formation of insulin and enzymes and protein
synthesis
• Deficiency- decreased taste and smell acuity, impaired wound
healing, skin lesions, delayed growth
Copper
• Found in all tissues but heaviest concentration in liver, kidney, muscle
and brain

Functions
• Essential component of several enzymes
• Helps in formation of hemoglobin
• Aids in transport of iron in bone marrow
• Participates in energy production
• Deficiency- anemia, bone demineralization
• Sources- liver, kidney, shellfish, nuts
Manganese
• Constituent of several enzymes involved in metabolism
• Important in bone formation
• Sources - wholegrain and tea
Other Minerals
• Chromium
• Cobalt
• Selenium
• Molybdenum