Presentation 6 Statistics

Statistics
What is Statistics?
A practice or science of collecting, organizing,
analyzing, representing and interpreting numerical data
in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring
proportions in a whole from those in a a representative
sample.
Types of Research
Quantitative research
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies
statistics or mathematics and uses numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is
evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and
graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of
decision making.
Qualitative research
• It is non-numerical, descriptive,
applies reasoning and uses words.
• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling
and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of
decision making.
Mixed research
• Involves the mixing of
quantitative and
qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics.
Nature of data is mixture
of variables, words and
images.
Descriptive research
The descriptive research is
directed toward studying “what”
and how many off this “what”.
Thus, it is directed toward
answering questions such as,
“What is this?”.
Scale of Measurements
(Non-parametric and
Parametric)
Nominal Scale
No numerical or quantitative properties.
Unordered set of categories identified only

by name.
Examples: gender (male, female), list of

names, course/major
Ordinal Scale
Used to rank and order the levels of the variable

being studied. No particular value is placed
between the numbers in the rating scale.
Examples:
Movie Ratings: 4 Stars, 3 Stars, 2 Stars, and 1
Star
Race results: 1st, 2nd , 3rd
Interval Scale
Difference between the numbers on the scale

is meaningful and intervals are equal in size.
NO absolute zero.
•Allows for comparisons between things
being measured
Example: Temperatures on a thermometer
Ratio Scale
Scales that do have an absolute zero point

than indicated the absence of the variable
being studied. Can form ratios.
Example: Weight, Length, Time
Measures of Central
Tendency
Mean
The ‘average’ of all the scores. Add up all
scores and divide by total number of scores.
Example: 2 3 4 6 10
2+3+4+6+10 = 25/5 = 5
Mean is 5

Median
The score that divides a group of scores in half
with 50% falling above and 50% falling below
the median.
Example:
3 3 3 5 8 8 8: The median is 5
3 3 5 6: The median is 4 (Average of two
middle numbers)
Mode
The most common score/s.

The most frequently occurring score/s.
Example
3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6: Mode is 6
3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8: Mode is 3 and 4
Measures of Variability
(Dispersion)
Range
Calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the

highest score.
Used only for Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio scales as
the data must be ordered.
Example: 2 3 4 6 8 11 24 (Range is 22)

Standard Deviation
Most widely used measure to describe the

dispersion among a set of observations in a
distribution.
Variance
The squared of the standard deviation.

Types of Statistical Analysis -
Descriptive
Quantify the degree of relationship
between variables
Parametric tests are used to test hypotheses

with stringent assumptions about
observations
e.g., t-test, ANOVA
Nonparametric tests are used with data in a

nominal or ordinal scale
e.g., Chi-Square, Mann-Whitney U,
Wilcoxon
Allow generalization about populations using data from
samples
Non-parametric
Non-parametric tests do not require any assumptions
about normal distribution, but are generally less sensitive
than parametric tests.
The test for nominal data is the Chi-Square test
The tests for ordinal data are the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test, the Mann-Whitney U test, and the Wilcoxon
Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test
Parametric
The tests for interval and ratio data include the t-test,
ANOVA, ANCOVA, and Post-Hoc ANOVA tests
Student’s T-Test
•
Used for comparing the means of two sample groups using
the variance
•
Several types, dependant on the samples:
‘Dependant/Paired’ – Using this one!
–
‘Independent Equal Variance’
–
‘Independent Unequal Variance’
Assumes populations are normally distributed

Correlation
A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a
perfect positive correlation. As variable X
increases, variable Y increases. As variable X
decreases, variable Y decreases.
A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect
negative correlation. As variable X increases,
variable Z decreases. As variable X decreases,
variable Z increases.
A correlation coefficient near 0 indicates no
correlation.
To use the Analysis Toolpak add-in in Excel to quickly
generate correlation coefficients between multiple
variables, execute the following steps.
1. On the Data tab, in the Analysis group, click Data

Analysis.
2. Select Correlation and click OK.

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Statistics

No numerical or quantitative properties.

Unordered set of categories identified only

Examples: gender (male, female), list of

Used to rank and order the levels of the variable

Difference between the numbers on the scale

Scales that do have an absolute zero point

The most common score/s.

Calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the

Example: 2 3 4 6 8 11 24 (Range is 22)

Most widely used measure to describe the

The squared of the standard deviation.

Parametric tests are used to test hypotheses

Nonparametric tests are used with data in a

‘Dependant/Paired’ – Using this one!

Assumes populations are normally distributed

1. On the Data tab, in the Analysis group, click Data

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